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Many such systems

  • 1 such systems are common in many fields of engineering

    Универсальный англо-русский словарь > such systems are common in many fields of engineering

  • 2 automation technologies

    1. технологии для автоматизации

     

    технологии для автоматизации
    -
    [Интент]

    Параллельные тексты EN-RU

    Automation technologies: a strong focal point for our R&D

    Технологии для автоматизации - одна из главных тем наших научно исследовательских разработок

    Automation is an area of ABB’s business with an extremely high level of technological innovation.

    Автоматика относится к одной из областей деятельности компании АББ, для которой характерен исключительно высокий уровень технических инноваций.

    In fact, it may be seen as a showcase for exhibiting the frontiers of development in several of today’s emerging technologies, like short-range wireless communication and microelectromechanical systems (MEMS).

    В определенном смысле ее можно уподобить витрине, в которой выставлены передовые разработки из области только еще зарождающихся технологий, примерами которых являются ближняя беспроводная связь и микроэлектромеханические системы (micro electromechanical systems MEMS).

    Mechatronics – the synthesis of mechanics and electronics – is another very exciting and rapidly developing area, and the foundation on which ABB has built its highly successful, fast-growing robotics business.

    Еще одной исключительно интересной быстро развивающейся областью и в то же время фундаментом, на котором АББ в последнее время строит свой исключительно успешный и быстро расширяющийся бизнес в области робототехники, является мехатроника - синтез механики с электроникой.

    Robotic precision has now reached the levels we have come to expect of the watch-making industry, while robots’ mechanical capabilities continue to improve significantly.

    Точность работы робототехнических устройств достигла сегодня уровней, которые мы привыкли ожидать только на предприятиях часовой промышленности. Большими темпами продолжают расти и механические возможности роботов.

    Behind the scenes, highly sophisticated electronics and software control every move these robots make.

    А за кулисами всеми перемещениями робота управляют сложные электронные устройства и компьютерные программы.

    Throughout industry today we see a major shift of ‘intelligence’ to lower levels in the automation system hierarchy, leading to a demand for more communication within the system.

    Во всех отраслях промышленности сегодня наблюдается интенсивный перенос "интеллекта" на нижние уровни иерархии автоматизированных систем, что требует дальнейшего развития внутрисистемных средств обмена.

    ‘Smart’ transmitters, with powerful microprocessors, memory chips and special software, carry out vital operations close to the processes they are monitoring.

    "Интеллектуальные" датчики, снабженные высокопроизводительными микропроцессорами, мощными чипами памяти и специальным программно-математическим обеспечением, выполняют особо ответственные операции в непосредственной близости от контролируемых процессов.

    And they capture and store data crucial for remote diagnostics and maintenance.

    Они же обеспечивают возможность измерения и регистрации информации, крайне необходимой для дистанционной диагностики и дистанционного обслуживания техники.

    The communication highway linking such systems is provided by fieldbuses.

    В качестве коммуникационных магистралей, связывающих такого рода системы, служат промышленные шины fieldbus.

    In an ideal world there would be no more than a few, preferably just one, fieldbus standard.

    В идеале на промышленные шины должно было бы существовать небольшое количество, а лучше всего вообще только один стандарт.

    However, there are still too many of them, so ABB has developed ‘fieldbus plugs’ that, with the help of translation, enable devices to communicate across different standards.

    К сожалению, на деле количество их типов продолжает оставаться слишком разнообразным. Ввиду этой особенности рынка промышленных шин компанией АББ разработаны "штепсельные разъемы", которые с помощью средств преобразования обеспечивают общение различных устройств вопреки границам, возникшим из-за различий в стандартах.

    This makes life easier as well as less costly for our customers. Every automation system is dependent on an electrical network for distributing – and interrupting, when necessary – the power needed to carry out its various functions.

    Это, безусловно, не только облегчает, но и удешевляет жизнь нашим заказчикам. Ни одна система автоматики не может работать без сети, обеспечивающей подачу, а при необходимости и отключение напряжения, необходимого для выполнения автоматикой своих задач.

    Here, too, we see a clear trend toward more intelligence and communication, for example in traditional electromechanical devices such as contactors and switches.

    И здесь наблюдаются отчетливо выраженные тенденции к повышению уровня интеллектуальности и расширению возможностей связи, например, в таких традиционных электромеханических устройствах, как контакторы и выключатели.

    We are pleased to see that our R&D efforts in these areas over the past few years are bearing fruit.

    Мы с удовлетворением отмечаем, что научно-исследовательские разработки, выполненные нами за последние годы в названных областях, начинают приносить свои плоды.

    Recently, we have seen a strong increase in the use of wireless technology in industry.

    В последнее время на промышленных предприятиях наблюдается резкое расширение применения техники беспроводной связи.

    This is a key R&D area at ABB, and several prototype applications have already been developed.

    В компании АББ эта область также относится к числу одной из ключевых тем научно-исследовательских разработок, результатом которых стало создание ряда опытных образцов изделий практического направления.

    At the international Bluetooth Conference in Amsterdam in June 2002, we presented a truly ‘wire-less’ proximity sensor – with even a wireless power supply.

    На международной конференции по системам Bluetooth, состоявшейся в Амстердаме в июне 2002 г., наши специалисты выступили с докладом о поистине "беспроводном" датчике ближней локации, снабженном опять-таки "беспроводным" источником питания.

    This was its second major showing after the launch at the Hanover Fair.

    На столь крупном мероприятии это устройство демонстрировалось во второй раз после своего первого показа на Ганноверской торгово-промышленной ярмарке.

    Advances in microelectronic device technology are also having a profound impact on the power electronics systems around which modern drive systems are built.

    Достижения в области микроэлектроники оказывают также глубокое влияние на системы силовой электроники, лежащие в основе современных приводных устройств.

    The ABB drive family ACS 800 is visible proof of this.

    Наглядным тому доказательством может служить линейка блоков регулирования частоты вращения электродвигателей ACS-800, производство которой начато компанией АББ.

    Combining advanced trench gate IGBT technology with efficient cooling and innovative design, this drive – for motors rated from 1.1 to 500 kW – has a footprint for some power ranges which is six times smaller than competing systems.

    Предназначены они для двигателей мощностью от 1,1 до 500 кВт. В блоках применена новейшая разновидность приборов - биполярные транзисторы с изолированным желобковым затвором (trench gate IGBT) в сочетании с новыми конструктивными решениями, благодаря чему в отдельных диапазонах мощностей габариты блоков удалось снизить по сравнению с конкурирующими изделиями в шесть раз.

    To get the maximum benefit out of this innovative drive solution we have also developed a new permanent magnet motor.

    Стремясь с максимальной пользой использовать новые блоки регулирования, мы параллельно с ними разработали новый двигатель с постоянными магнитами.

    It uses neodymium iron boron, a magnetic material which is more powerful at room temperature than any other known today.

    В нем применен новый магнитный материал на основе неодима, железа и бора, характеристики которого при комнатной температуре на сегодняшний день не имеют себе равных.

    The combination of new drive and new motor reduces losses by as much as 30%, lowering energy costs and improving sustainability – both urgently necessary – at the same time.

    Совместное использование нового блока регулирования частоты вращения с новым двигателем снижает потери мощности до 30 %, что позволяет решить сразу две исключительно актуальные задачи:
    сократить затраты на электроэнергию и повысить уровень безотказности.

    These innovations are utilized most fully, and yield the maximum benefit, when integrated by means of our Industrial IT architecture.

    Потенциал перечисленных выше новых разработок используется в наиболее полной степени, а сами они приносят максимальную выгоду, если их интеграция осуществлена на основе нашей архитектуры IndustrialIT.

    Industrial IT is a unique platform for exploiting the full potential of information technology in industrial applications.

    IndustrialIT представляет собой уникальную платформу, позволяющую в максимальной степени использовать возможности информационных технологий применительно к задачам промышленности.

    Consequently, our new products and technologies are Industrial IT Enabled, meaning that they can be integrated in the Industrial IT architecture in a ‘plug and produce’ manner.

    Именно поэтому все наши новые изделия и технологии выпускаются в варианте, совместимом с архитектурой IndustrialIT, что означает их способность к интеграции с этой архитектурой по принципу "подключи и производи".

    We are excited to present in this issue of ABB Review some of our R&D work and a selection of achievements in such a vital area of our business as Automation.

    Мы рады представить в настоящем номере "АББ ревю" некоторые из наших научно-исследовательских разработок и достижений в такой жизненно важной для нашего бизнеса области, как автоматика.

    R&D investment in our corporate technology programs is the foundation on which our product and system innovation is built.

    Вклад наших разработок в общекорпоративные технологические программы группы АББ служит основой для реализации новых технических решений в создаваемых нами устройствах и системах.

    Examples abound in the areas of control engineering, MEMS, wireless communication, materials – and, last but not least, software technologies. Enjoy reading about them.
    [ABB Review]

    Это подтверждается многочисленными примерами из области техники управления, микроэлектромеханических систем, ближней радиосвязи, материаловедения и не в последнюю очередь программотехники. Хотелось бы пожелать читателю получить удовольствие от чтения этих материалов.
    [Перевод Интент]

    Тематики

    EN

    Англо-русский словарь нормативно-технической терминологии > automation technologies

  • 3 Gatling, Dr Richard Jordan

    [br]
    b. 12 September 1818 Winston, North Carolina, USA
    d. 26 February 1903 New York, USA
    [br]
    American weapons designer and metallurgist.
    [br]
    Gatling first became interested in inventing when helping his father develop more-efficient agricultural machines, and as early as 1839 he developed a screw propeller for ships. Shortly after this he was struck down by smallpox, and it was this that caused him, when he recovered, to study medicine; he did this at the Ohio Medical College, graduating in 1850. The outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861 triggered an immediate interest in weaponry and he set about designing a rapid-fire weapon, which would both bear his name and be one of the forerunners of the machine gun: he completed his design of the Gatling Gun in 1862. His concept of using several barrels was not unique, with other inventors such as the Belgian Fafschamps and the Frenchman Reffye also employing it. However, Catling's gun was superior to the others in the soundness of its engineering. The rounds were fed through a hopper on top of the gun into the chambers of each barrel, and the barrels themselves were fixed in a cluster. An endless screw operated by a hand crank controlled the operation, opening the breech of each barrel in turn, enabling the round to drop into the chamber through a series of grooves, and then closing the breech and releasing the striker. In the face of fierce competition, the Gatling was adopted by the US Army in 1866, and many other armies followed suit. Although a version powered by an electric motor was introduced in 1893, the Gatling was gradually superseded by the fully automatic machine gun, first developed by Maxim. Even so, such was the excellence of the Gatling's mechanics that the concept was readopted by the Americans in the late 1950s and employed in such systems as the Vulcan air-defence gun and the airborne Minigun. Gatling's inventions did not end with his gun. In 1886 he developed a new steel and aluminium alloy and also experimented with the production of cast-steel cannon.
    CM

    Biographical history of technology > Gatling, Dr Richard Jordan

  • 4 Artificial Intelligence

       In my opinion, none of [these programs] does even remote justice to the complexity of human mental processes. Unlike men, "artificially intelligent" programs tend to be single minded, undistractable, and unemotional. (Neisser, 1967, p. 9)
       Future progress in [artificial intelligence] will depend on the development of both practical and theoretical knowledge.... As regards theoretical knowledge, some have sought a unified theory of artificial intelligence. My view is that artificial intelligence is (or soon will be) an engineering discipline since its primary goal is to build things. (Nilsson, 1971, pp. vii-viii)
       Most workers in AI [artificial intelligence] research and in related fields confess to a pronounced feeling of disappointment in what has been achieved in the last 25 years. Workers entered the field around 1950, and even around 1960, with high hopes that are very far from being realized in 1972. In no part of the field have the discoveries made so far produced the major impact that was then promised.... In the meantime, claims and predictions regarding the potential results of AI research had been publicized which went even farther than the expectations of the majority of workers in the field, whose embarrassments have been added to by the lamentable failure of such inflated predictions....
       When able and respected scientists write in letters to the present author that AI, the major goal of computing science, represents "another step in the general process of evolution"; that possibilities in the 1980s include an all-purpose intelligence on a human-scale knowledge base; that awe-inspiring possibilities suggest themselves based on machine intelligence exceeding human intelligence by the year 2000 [one has the right to be skeptical]. (Lighthill, 1972, p. 17)
       4) Just as Astronomy Succeeded Astrology, the Discovery of Intellectual Processes in Machines Should Lead to a Science, Eventually
       Just as astronomy succeeded astrology, following Kepler's discovery of planetary regularities, the discoveries of these many principles in empirical explorations on intellectual processes in machines should lead to a science, eventually. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)
       Many problems arise in experiments on machine intelligence because things obvious to any person are not represented in any program. One can pull with a string, but one cannot push with one.... Simple facts like these caused serious problems when Charniak attempted to extend Bobrow's "Student" program to more realistic applications, and they have not been faced up to until now. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 77)
       What do we mean by [a symbolic] "description"? We do not mean to suggest that our descriptions must be made of strings of ordinary language words (although they might be). The simplest kind of description is a structure in which some features of a situation are represented by single ("primitive") symbols, and relations between those features are represented by other symbols-or by other features of the way the description is put together. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)
       [AI is] the use of computer programs and programming techniques to cast light on the principles of intelligence in general and human thought in particular. (Boden, 1977, p. 5)
       The word you look for and hardly ever see in the early AI literature is the word knowledge. They didn't believe you have to know anything, you could always rework it all.... In fact 1967 is the turning point in my mind when there was enough feeling that the old ideas of general principles had to go.... I came up with an argument for what I called the primacy of expertise, and at the time I called the other guys the generalists. (Moses, quoted in McCorduck, 1979, pp. 228-229)
       9) Artificial Intelligence Is Psychology in a Particularly Pure and Abstract Form
       The basic idea of cognitive science is that intelligent beings are semantic engines-in other words, automatic formal systems with interpretations under which they consistently make sense. We can now see why this includes psychology and artificial intelligence on a more or less equal footing: people and intelligent computers (if and when there are any) turn out to be merely different manifestations of the same underlying phenomenon. Moreover, with universal hardware, any semantic engine can in principle be formally imitated by a computer if only the right program can be found. And that will guarantee semantic imitation as well, since (given the appropriate formal behavior) the semantics is "taking care of itself" anyway. Thus we also see why, from this perspective, artificial intelligence can be regarded as psychology in a particularly pure and abstract form. The same fundamental structures are under investigation, but in AI, all the relevant parameters are under direct experimental control (in the programming), without any messy physiology or ethics to get in the way. (Haugeland, 1981b, p. 31)
       There are many different kinds of reasoning one might imagine:
        Formal reasoning involves the syntactic manipulation of data structures to deduce new ones following prespecified rules of inference. Mathematical logic is the archetypical formal representation. Procedural reasoning uses simulation to answer questions and solve problems. When we use a program to answer What is the sum of 3 and 4? it uses, or "runs," a procedural model of arithmetic. Reasoning by analogy seems to be a very natural mode of thought for humans but, so far, difficult to accomplish in AI programs. The idea is that when you ask the question Can robins fly? the system might reason that "robins are like sparrows, and I know that sparrows can fly, so robins probably can fly."
        Generalization and abstraction are also natural reasoning process for humans that are difficult to pin down well enough to implement in a program. If one knows that Robins have wings, that Sparrows have wings, and that Blue jays have wings, eventually one will believe that All birds have wings. This capability may be at the core of most human learning, but it has not yet become a useful technique in AI.... Meta- level reasoning is demonstrated by the way one answers the question What is Paul Newman's telephone number? You might reason that "if I knew Paul Newman's number, I would know that I knew it, because it is a notable fact." This involves using "knowledge about what you know," in particular, about the extent of your knowledge and about the importance of certain facts. Recent research in psychology and AI indicates that meta-level reasoning may play a central role in human cognitive processing. (Barr & Feigenbaum, 1981, pp. 146-147)
       Suffice it to say that programs already exist that can do things-or, at the very least, appear to be beginning to do things-which ill-informed critics have asserted a priori to be impossible. Examples include: perceiving in a holistic as opposed to an atomistic way; using language creatively; translating sensibly from one language to another by way of a language-neutral semantic representation; planning acts in a broad and sketchy fashion, the details being decided only in execution; distinguishing between different species of emotional reaction according to the psychological context of the subject. (Boden, 1981, p. 33)
       Can the synthesis of Man and Machine ever be stable, or will the purely organic component become such a hindrance that it has to be discarded? If this eventually happens-and I have... good reasons for thinking that it must-we have nothing to regret and certainly nothing to fear. (Clarke, 1984, p. 243)
       The thesis of GOFAI... is not that the processes underlying intelligence can be described symbolically... but that they are symbolic. (Haugeland, 1985, p. 113)
        14) Artificial Intelligence Provides a Useful Approach to Psychological and Psychiatric Theory Formation
       It is all very well formulating psychological and psychiatric theories verbally but, when using natural language (even technical jargon), it is difficult to recognise when a theory is complete; oversights are all too easily made, gaps too readily left. This is a point which is generally recognised to be true and it is for precisely this reason that the behavioural sciences attempt to follow the natural sciences in using "classical" mathematics as a more rigorous descriptive language. However, it is an unfortunate fact that, with a few notable exceptions, there has been a marked lack of success in this application. It is my belief that a different approach-a different mathematics-is needed, and that AI provides just this approach. (Hand, quoted in Hand, 1985, pp. 6-7)
       We might distinguish among four kinds of AI.
       Research of this kind involves building and programming computers to perform tasks which, to paraphrase Marvin Minsky, would require intelligence if they were done by us. Researchers in nonpsychological AI make no claims whatsoever about the psychological realism of their programs or the devices they build, that is, about whether or not computers perform tasks as humans do.
       Research here is guided by the view that the computer is a useful tool in the study of mind. In particular, we can write computer programs or build devices that simulate alleged psychological processes in humans and then test our predictions about how the alleged processes work. We can weave these programs and devices together with other programs and devices that simulate different alleged mental processes and thereby test the degree to which the AI system as a whole simulates human mentality. According to weak psychological AI, working with computer models is a way of refining and testing hypotheses about processes that are allegedly realized in human minds.
    ... According to this view, our minds are computers and therefore can be duplicated by other computers. Sherry Turkle writes that the "real ambition is of mythic proportions, making a general purpose intelligence, a mind." (Turkle, 1984, p. 240) The authors of a major text announce that "the ultimate goal of AI research is to build a person or, more humbly, an animal." (Charniak & McDermott, 1985, p. 7)
       Research in this field, like strong psychological AI, takes seriously the functionalist view that mentality can be realized in many different types of physical devices. Suprapsychological AI, however, accuses strong psychological AI of being chauvinisticof being only interested in human intelligence! Suprapsychological AI claims to be interested in all the conceivable ways intelligence can be realized. (Flanagan, 1991, pp. 241-242)
        16) Determination of Relevance of Rules in Particular Contexts
       Even if the [rules] were stored in a context-free form the computer still couldn't use them. To do that the computer requires rules enabling it to draw on just those [ rules] which are relevant in each particular context. Determination of relevance will have to be based on further facts and rules, but the question will again arise as to which facts and rules are relevant for making each particular determination. One could always invoke further facts and rules to answer this question, but of course these must be only the relevant ones. And so it goes. It seems that AI workers will never be able to get started here unless they can settle the problem of relevance beforehand by cataloguing types of context and listing just those facts which are relevant in each. (Dreyfus & Dreyfus, 1986, p. 80)
       Perhaps the single most important idea to artificial intelligence is that there is no fundamental difference between form and content, that meaning can be captured in a set of symbols such as a semantic net. (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)
        18) The Assumption That the Mind Is a Formal System
       Artificial intelligence is based on the assumption that the mind can be described as some kind of formal system manipulating symbols that stand for things in the world. Thus it doesn't matter what the brain is made of, or what it uses for tokens in the great game of thinking. Using an equivalent set of tokens and rules, we can do thinking with a digital computer, just as we can play chess using cups, salt and pepper shakers, knives, forks, and spoons. Using the right software, one system (the mind) can be mapped into the other (the computer). (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)
        19) A Statement of the Primary and Secondary Purposes of Artificial Intelligence
       The primary goal of Artificial Intelligence is to make machines smarter.
       The secondary goals of Artificial Intelligence are to understand what intelligence is (the Nobel laureate purpose) and to make machines more useful (the entrepreneurial purpose). (Winston, 1987, p. 1)
       The theoretical ideas of older branches of engineering are captured in the language of mathematics. We contend that mathematical logic provides the basis for theory in AI. Although many computer scientists already count logic as fundamental to computer science in general, we put forward an even stronger form of the logic-is-important argument....
       AI deals mainly with the problem of representing and using declarative (as opposed to procedural) knowledge. Declarative knowledge is the kind that is expressed as sentences, and AI needs a language in which to state these sentences. Because the languages in which this knowledge usually is originally captured (natural languages such as English) are not suitable for computer representations, some other language with the appropriate properties must be used. It turns out, we think, that the appropriate properties include at least those that have been uppermost in the minds of logicians in their development of logical languages such as the predicate calculus. Thus, we think that any language for expressing knowledge in AI systems must be at least as expressive as the first-order predicate calculus. (Genesereth & Nilsson, 1987, p. viii)
        21) Perceptual Structures Can Be Represented as Lists of Elementary Propositions
       In artificial intelligence studies, perceptual structures are represented as assemblages of description lists, the elementary components of which are propositions asserting that certain relations hold among elements. (Chase & Simon, 1988, p. 490)
       Artificial intelligence (AI) is sometimes defined as the study of how to build and/or program computers to enable them to do the sorts of things that minds can do. Some of these things are commonly regarded as requiring intelligence: offering a medical diagnosis and/or prescription, giving legal or scientific advice, proving theorems in logic or mathematics. Others are not, because they can be done by all normal adults irrespective of educational background (and sometimes by non-human animals too), and typically involve no conscious control: seeing things in sunlight and shadows, finding a path through cluttered terrain, fitting pegs into holes, speaking one's own native tongue, and using one's common sense. Because it covers AI research dealing with both these classes of mental capacity, this definition is preferable to one describing AI as making computers do "things that would require intelligence if done by people." However, it presupposes that computers could do what minds can do, that they might really diagnose, advise, infer, and understand. One could avoid this problematic assumption (and also side-step questions about whether computers do things in the same way as we do) by defining AI instead as "the development of computers whose observable performance has features which in humans we would attribute to mental processes." This bland characterization would be acceptable to some AI workers, especially amongst those focusing on the production of technological tools for commercial purposes. But many others would favour a more controversial definition, seeing AI as the science of intelligence in general-or, more accurately, as the intellectual core of cognitive science. As such, its goal is to provide a systematic theory that can explain (and perhaps enable us to replicate) both the general categories of intentionality and the diverse psychological capacities grounded in them. (Boden, 1990b, pp. 1-2)
       Because the ability to store data somewhat corresponds to what we call memory in human beings, and because the ability to follow logical procedures somewhat corresponds to what we call reasoning in human beings, many members of the cult have concluded that what computers do somewhat corresponds to what we call thinking. It is no great difficulty to persuade the general public of that conclusion since computers process data very fast in small spaces well below the level of visibility; they do not look like other machines when they are at work. They seem to be running along as smoothly and silently as the brain does when it remembers and reasons and thinks. On the other hand, those who design and build computers know exactly how the machines are working down in the hidden depths of their semiconductors. Computers can be taken apart, scrutinized, and put back together. Their activities can be tracked, analyzed, measured, and thus clearly understood-which is far from possible with the brain. This gives rise to the tempting assumption on the part of the builders and designers that computers can tell us something about brains, indeed, that the computer can serve as a model of the mind, which then comes to be seen as some manner of information processing machine, and possibly not as good at the job as the machine. (Roszak, 1994, pp. xiv-xv)
       The inner workings of the human mind are far more intricate than the most complicated systems of modern technology. Researchers in the field of artificial intelligence have been attempting to develop programs that will enable computers to display intelligent behavior. Although this field has been an active one for more than thirty-five years and has had many notable successes, AI researchers still do not know how to create a program that matches human intelligence. No existing program can recall facts, solve problems, reason, learn, and process language with human facility. This lack of success has occurred not because computers are inferior to human brains but rather because we do not yet know in sufficient detail how intelligence is organized in the brain. (Anderson, 1995, p. 2)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Artificial Intelligence

  • 5 BIOS

    ['baios] n. shkurtesë nga b asic i nput o utput s ystem ( BIOS) sistemi themelor për hyrje-dalje ( informatikë)
    What is BIOS?
    BIOS is an acronym for Basic Input/Output System. It is the boot firmware program on a PC, and controls the computer from the time you start it up until the operating system takes over. When you turn on a PC, the BIOS first conducts a basic hardware check, called a Power-On Self Test (POST), to determine whether all of the attachments are present and working. Then it loads the operating system into your computer's random access memory, or RAM.
    The BIOS also manages data flow between the computer's operating system and attached devices such as the hard disk, video card, keyboard, mouse, and printer.
    The BIOS stores the date, the time, and your system configuration information in a battery-powered, non-volatile memory chip, called a CMOS (Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor) after its manufacturing process.
    Although the BIOS is standardized and should rarely require updating, some older BIOS chips may not accommodate new hardware devices. Before the early 1990s, you couldn't update the BIOS without removing and replacing its ROM chip. Contemporary BIOS resides on memory chips such as flash chips or EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory), so that you can update the BIOS yourself if necessary.
    For detailed information about BIOS updates, visit:
    What is firmware?
    Firmware consists of programs installed semi-permanently into memory, using various types of programmable ROM chips, such as PROMS, EPROMs, EEPROMs, and flash chips.
    Firmware is non-volatile, and will remain in memory after you turn the system off.
    Often, the term firmware is used to refer specifically to boot firmware, which controls a computer from the time that it is turned on until the primary operating system has taken over. Boot firmware's main function is to initialize the hardware and then to boot (load and execute) the primary operating system. On PCs, the boot firmware is usually referred to as the BIOS.
    What is the difference between memory and disk storage?
    Memory and disk storage both refer to internal storage space in a computer.
    The term memory usually means RAM (Random Access Memory). To refer to hard drive storage, the terms disk space or storage are usually used.
    Typically, computers have much less memory than disk space, because RAM is much more expensive per megabyte than a hard disk. Today, a typical desktop computer might come with 512MB of RAM, and a 40 gigabyte hard disk.
    Virtual memory is disk space that has been designated to act like RAM.
    Computers also contain a small amount of ROM, or read-only memory, containing permanent or semi-permanent (firmware) instructions for checking hardware and starting up the computer. On a PC, this is called the BIOS.
    What is RAM?
    RAM stands for Random Access Memory. RAM provides space for your computer to read and write data to be accessed by the CPU (central processing unit). When people refer to a computer's memory, they usually mean its RAM.
    New computers typically come with at least 256 megabytes (MB) of RAM installed, and can be upgraded to 512MB or even a gigabyte or more.
    If you add more RAM to your computer, you reduce the number of times your CPU must read data from your hard disk. This usually allows your computer to work considerably faster, as RAM is many times faster than a hard disk.
    RAM is volatile, so data stored in RAM stays there only as long as your computer is running. As soon as you turn the computer off, the data stored in RAM disappears.
    When you turn your computer on again, your computer's boot firmware (called BIOS on a PC) uses instructions stored semi-permanently in ROM chips to read your operating system and related files from the disk and load them back into RAM.
    Note: On a PC, different parts of RAM may be more or less easily accessible to programs. For example, cache RAM is made up of very high-speed RAM chips which sit between the CPU and main RAM, storing (i.e., caching) memory accesses by the CPU. Cache RAM helps to alleviate the gap between the speed of a CPU's megahertz rating and the ability of RAM to respond and deliver data. It reduces how often the CPU must wait for data from main memory.
    What is ROM?
    ROM is an acronym for Read-Only Memory. It refers to computer memory chips containing permanent or semi-permanent data. Unlike RAM, ROM is non-volatile; even after you turn off your computer, the contents of ROM will remain.
    Almost every computer comes with a small amount of ROM containing the boot firmware. This consists of a few kilobytes of code that tell the computer what to do when it starts up, e.g., running hardware diagnostics and loading the operating system into RAM. On a PC, the boot firmware is called the BIOS.
    Originally, ROM was actually read-only. To update the programs in ROM, you had to remove and physically replace your ROM chips. Contemporary versions of ROM allow some limited rewriting, so you can usually upgrade firmware such as the BIOS by using installation software. Rewritable ROM chips include PROMs (programmable read-only memory), EPROMs (erasable read-only memory), EEPROMs (electrically erasable programmable read-only memory), and a common variation of EEPROMs called flash memory.
    What is an ACPI BIOS?
    ACPI is an acronym that stands for Advanced Configuration and Power Interface, a power management specification developed by Intel, Microsoft, and Toshiba. ACPI support is built into Windows 98 and later operating systems. ACPI is designed to allow the operating system to control the amount of power provided to each device or peripheral attached to the computer system. This provides much more stable and efficient power management and makes it possible for the operating system to turn off selected devices, such as a monitor or CD-ROM drive, when they are not in use.
    ACPI should help eliminate computer lockup on entering power saving or sleep mode. This will allow for improved power management, especially in portable computer systems where reducing power consumption is critical for extending battery life. ACPI also allows for the computer to be turned on and off by external devices, so that the touch of a mouse or the press of a key will "wake up" the computer. This new feature of ACPI, called OnNow, allows a computer to enter a sleep mode that uses very little power.
    In addition to providing power management, ACPI also evolves the existing Plug and Play BIOS (PnP BIOS) to make adding and configuring new hardware devices easier. This includes support for legacy non-PnP devices and improved support for combining older devices with ACPI hardware, allowing both to work in a more efficient manner in the same computer system. The end result of this is to make the BIOS more PnP compatible.
    What is CMOS?
    CMOS, short for Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor, is a low-power, low-heat semiconductor technology used in contemporary microchips, especially useful for battery-powered devices. The specific technology is explained in detail at:
    http://searchsmb.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,,sid44_gci213860,00.html
    Most commonly, though, the term CMOS is used to refer to small battery-powered configuration chips on system boards of personal computers, where the BIOS stores the date, the time, and system configuration details.
    How do I enter the Setup program in my BIOS?
    Warning: Your BIOS Setup program is very powerful. An incorrect setting could cause your computer not to boot properly. You should make sure you understand what a setting does before you change it.
    You can usually run Setup by pressing a special function key or key combination soon after turning on the computer, during its power-on self test (POST), before the operating system loads (or before the operating system's splash screen shows). During POST, the BIOS usually displays a prompt such as:
    Press F2 to enter Setup
    Many newer computers display a brief screen, usually black and white, with the computer manufacturer's logo during POST.
    Entering the designated keystroke will take you into the BIOS Setup. Common keystrokes to enter the BIOS Setup are F1, F2, F10, and Del.
    On some computers, such as some Gateway or Compaq computers, graphics appear during the POST, and the BIOS information is hidden. You must press Esc to make these graphics disappear. Your monitor will then display the correct keystroke to enter.
    Note: If you press the key too early or too often, the BIOS may display an error message. To avoid this, wait about five seconds after turning the power on, and then press the key once or twice.
    What's the difference between BIOS and CMOS?
    Many people use the terms BIOS (basic input/output system) and CMOS (complementary metal oxide semiconductor) to refer to the same thing. Though they are related, they are distinct and separate components of a computer. The BIOS is the program that starts a computer up, and the CMOS is where the BIOS stores the date, time, and system configuration details it needs to start the computer.
    The BIOS is a small program that controls the computer from the time it powers on until the time the operating system takes over. The BIOS is firmware, which means it cannot store variable data.
    CMOS is a type of memory technology, but most people use the term to refer to the chip that stores variable data for startup. A computer's BIOS will initialize and control components like the floppy and hard drive controllers and the computer's hardware clock, but the specific parameters for startup and initializing components are stored in the CMOS.

    English-Albanian dictionary > BIOS

  • 6 Historical Portugal

       Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.
       A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.
       Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140
       The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."
       In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.
       The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.
       Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385
       Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims in
       Portugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.
       The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.
       Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580
       The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.
       The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.
       What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.
       By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.
       Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.
       The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.
       By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.
       In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.
       Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640
       Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.
       Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.
       On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.
       Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822
       Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.
       Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.
       In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and the
       Church (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.
       Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.
       Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.
       Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910
       During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.
       Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.
       Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.
       Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.
       Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.
       As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.
       First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26
       Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.
       The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.
       Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.
       The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74
       During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."
       Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.
       For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),
       and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.
       The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.
       With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.
       During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.
       The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.
       At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.
       The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.
       Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76
       Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.
       Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.
       In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.
       In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.
       In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.
       The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict until
       UN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.
       Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000
       After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.
       From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.
       Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.
       Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.
       In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.
       In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.
       Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.
       Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.
       The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.
       Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.
       Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).
       All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.
       The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.
       After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.
       Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.
       Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.
       From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.
       Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.
       In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.
       An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Historical Portugal

  • 7 go

    1. intransitive verb,
    pres. he goes, p.t. went, pres. p. going, p.p. gone
    1) gehen; [Fahrzeug:] fahren; [Flugzeug:] fliegen; [Vierfüßer:] laufen; [Reptil:] kriechen; (on horseback etc.) reiten; (on skis, roller skates) laufen; (in wheelchair, pram, lift) fahren

    go by bicycle/car/bus/train or rail/boat or sea or ship — mit dem [Fahr]rad/Auto/Bus/Zug/Schiff fahren

    go by plane or air — fliegen

    go on foot — zu Fuß gehen; laufen (ugs.)

    as one goes [along] — (fig.) nach und nach

    do something as one goes [along] — (lit.) etwas beim Gehen od. unterwegs tun

    go on a journey — eine Reise machen; verreisen

    go first-class/at 50 m.p.h. — erster Klasse reisen od. fahren/80 Stundenkilometer fahren

    have far to go — weit zu gehen od. zu fahren haben; es weit haben

    the doll/dog goes everywhere with her — sie hat immer ihre Puppe/ihren Hund dabei

    who goes there? — (sentry's challenge) wer da?

    there you go — (coll., giving something) bitte!; da! (ugs.)

    2) (proceed as regards purpose, activity, destination, or route) [Bus, Zug, Lift, Schiff:] fahren; (use means of transportation) fahren; (fly) fliegen; (proceed on outward journey) weg-, abfahren; (travel regularly) [Verkehrsmittel:] verkehren (from... to zwischen + Dat.... und)

    his hand went to his pocket — er griff nach seiner Tasche

    go to the toilet/cinema/moon/a museum/a funeral — auf die Toilette/ins Kino gehen/zum Mond fliegen/ins Museum/zu einer Beerdigung gehen

    go to the doctor['s] — etc. zum Arzt usw. gehen

    go [out] to China — nach China gehen

    go [over] to America — nach Amerika [hinüber]fliegen/-fahren

    go [off] to London — nach London [ab]fahren/[ab]fliegen

    go this/that way — hier/da entlanggehen/-fahren

    go out of one's way — einen Umweg machen; (fig.) keine Mühe scheuen

    go towards something/somebody — auf etwas/jemanden zugehen

    don't go on the grass — geh nicht auf den Rasen

    go by something/somebody — [Festzug usw.:] an etwas/jemandem vorbeiziehen; [Bus usw.:] an etwas/jemandem vorbeifahren

    go in and out [of something] — [in etwas (Dat.)] ein- und ausgehen

    go into something — in etwas (Akk.) [hinein]gehen

    go chasing after something/somebody — hinter etwas/jemandem herrennen (ugs.)

    go and do something — [gehen und] etwas tun

    I'll go and get my coat — ich hole jetzt meinen Mantel

    go and see whether... — nachsehen [gehen], ob...

    go on a pilgrimage — etc. eine Pilgerfahrt usw. machen

    go on TV/the radio — im Fernsehen/Radio auftreten

    I'll go! — ich geh schon!; (answer phone) ich geh ran od. nehme ab; (answer door) ich mache auf

    you go! — (to the phone) geh du mal ran!

    3) (start) losgehen; (in vehicle) losfahren

    let's go! — (coll.) fangen wir an!

    here goes! — (coll.) dann mal los!

    whose turn is it to go? — (in game) wer ist an der Reihe?

    go first — (in game) anfangen

    from the word go — (fig. coll.) [schon] von Anfang an

    a shiver went up or down my spine — ein Schauer lief mir über den Rücken od. den Rücken hinunter

    go to — (be given to) [Preis, Sieg, Gelder, Job:] gehen an (+ Akk.); [Titel, Krone, Besitz:] übergehen auf (+ Akk.); [Ehre, Verdienst:] zuteil werden (Dat.)

    go towards — (be of benefit to) zugute kommen (+ Dat.)

    go according to — (be determined by) sich richten nach

    5) (make specific motion, do something specific)

    go round — [Rad:] sich drehen

    there he etc. goes again — (coll.) da, schon wieder!

    here we go again — (coll.) jetzt geht das wieder los!

    6) (act, work, function effectively) gehen; [Mechanismus, Maschine:] laufen

    get the car to go — das Auto ankriegen (ugs.) od. starten

    at midnight we were still going — um Mitternacht waren wir immer noch dabei od. im Gange

    keep going — (in movement) weitergehen/-fahren; (in activity) weitermachen; (not fail) sich aufrecht halten

    keep somebody going — (enable to continue) jemanden aufrecht halten

    make something go, get/set something going — etwas in Gang bringen

    7)

    go to — (attend)

    go to church/school — in die Kirche/die Schule gehen

    go to a comprehensive school — eine Gesamtschule besuchen; auf eine Gesamtschule gehen

    8) (have recourse)

    go to the relevant authority/UN — sich an die zuständige Behörde/UN wenden

    where do we go from here? — (fig.) und was nun? (ugs.)

    9) (depart) gehen; [Bus, Zug:] [ab]fahren; [Post:] rausgehen (ugs.)

    I must be going now — ich muss allmählich gehen

    time to go! — wir müssen/ihr müsst usw. gehen!

    to go — (Amer.) [Speisen, Getränke:] zum Mitnehmen

    10) (euphem.): (die) sterben
    11) (fail) [Gedächtnis, Kräfte:] nachlassen; (cease to function) kaputtgehen; [Maschine, Computer usw.:] ausfallen; [Sicherung:] durchbrennen; (break) brechen; [Seil usw.:] reißen; (collapse) einstürzen; (fray badly) ausfransen
    12) (disappear) verschwinden; [Geruch, Rauch:] sich verziehen; [Geld, Zeit:] draufgehen (ugs.) (in, on für); (be relinquished) aufgegeben werden; [Tradition:] abgeschafft werden; (be dismissed) [Arbeitskräfte:] entlassen werden

    my coat/the stain has gone — mein Mantel/der Fleck ist weg

    where has my hat gone? — wo ist mein Hut [geblieben]?

    13) (elapse) [Zeit:] vergehen; [Interview usw.:] vorüber-, vorbeigehen
    14)

    to go — (still remaining)

    have something [still] to go — [noch] etwas übrig haben

    one week etc. to go to... — noch eine Woche usw. bis...

    there's only another mile to go — [es ist] nur noch eine Meile

    one down, two to go — einer ist bereits erledigt, bleiben noch zwei übrig (salopp)

    15) (be sold) weggehen (ugs.); verkauft werden

    it went for £1 — es ging für 1 Pfund weg

    16) (run) [Grenze, Straße usw.:] verlaufen, gehen; (afford access, lead) gehen; führen; (extend) reichen; (fig.) gehen

    as or so far as he/it goes — soweit

    17) (turn out, progress) [Ereignis, Projekt, Interview, Abend:] verlaufen

    go against somebody/something — [Wahl, Kampf:] zu jemandes/einer Sache Ungunsten ausgehen; [Entscheidung, Urteil:] zu jemandes/einer Sache Ungunsten ausfallen

    how did your holiday/party go? — wie war Ihr Urlaub/Ihre Party?

    how is the book going? — was macht [denn] das Buch?

    things have been going well/badly/smoothly — etc. in der letzten Zeit läuft alles gut/schief/glatt usw.

    how are things going?, how is it going? — wie steht's od. (ugs.) läuft's?

    18) (be, have form or nature, be in temporary state) sein; [Sprichwort, Gedicht, Titel:] lauten

    this is how things go, that's the way it goes — so ist es nun mal

    go hungry — hungern; hungrig bleiben

    go without food/water — es ohne Essen/Wasser aushalten

    go in fear of one's life — in beständiger Angst um sein Leben leben; see also academic.ru/31520/go_against">go against

    19) (become) werden

    the constituency/York went Tory — der Wahlkreis/York ging an die Tories

    20) (have usual place) kommen; (belong) gehören

    where does the box go? — wo kommt od. gehört die Kiste hin?

    where do you want this chair to go? — wo soll od. kommt der Stuhl hin?

    21) (fit) passen

    go in[to] something — in etwas (Akk.) gehen od. [hinein]passen

    go through something — durch etwas [hindurch]gehen od. [hindurch]passen

    22) (harmonize, match) passen ( with zu)
    23) (serve, contribute) dienen

    the qualities that go to make a leader — die Eigenschaften, die einen Führer ausmachen

    it just goes to show that... — daran zeigt sich, dass...

    24) (make sound of specified kind) machen; (emit sound) [Turmuhr, Gong:] schlagen; [Glocke:] läuten

    There goes the bell. School is over — Es klingelt. Die Schule ist aus

    the fire alarm went at 3 a. m. — der Feueralarm ging um 3 Uhr morgens los

    25) as intensifier (coll.)

    don't go making or go and make him angry — verärgere ihn bloß nicht

    I gave him a £10 note and, of course, he had to go and lose it — (iron.) ich gab ihm einen 10-Pfund-Schein, und er musste ihn natürlich prompt verlieren

    now you've been and gone and done it! — (coll.) du hast ja was Schönes angerichtet! (ugs. iron.)

    go tell him I'm ready — (coll./Amer.) geh und sag ihm, dass ich fertig bin

    26) (coll.): (be acceptable or permitted) erlaubt sein; gehen (ugs.)

    everything/anything goes — es ist alles erlaubt

    it/that goes without saying — es/das ist doch selbstverständlich

    what he etc. says, goes — was er usw. sagt, gilt. See also going; gone

    2. transitive verb, forms as
    I
    1) (Cards) spielen
    2) (coll.)

    go it — es toll treiben; (work hard) rangehen

    go it! — los!; weiter!

    3. noun
    , pl. goes (coll.)
    1) (attempt, try) Versuch, der; (chance) Gelegenheit, die

    have a go — es versuchen od. probieren

    have a go at doing something — versuchen, etwas zu tun

    let me have/can I have a go? — lass mich [auch ein]mal/kann ich [auch ein]mal? (ugs.)

    it's my go — ich bin an der Reihe od. dran

    in two/three goes — bei zwei/drei Versuchen

    2)

    have a go at somebody — (scold) sich (Dat.) jemanden vornehmen od. vorknöpfen (ugs.); (attack) über jemanden herfallen

    3) (period of activity)

    he downed his beer in one go — er trank sein Bier in einem Zug aus

    4) (energy) Schwung, der

    be full of go — voller Schwung od. Elan sein

    5) (vigorous activity)
    6) (success)

    it's no go — da ist nichts zu machen

    4. adjective
    (coll.)
    Phrasal Verbs:
    * * *
    [ɡəu] 1. 3rd person singular present tense - goes; verb
    1) (to walk, travel, move etc: He is going across the field; Go straight ahead; When did he go out?) gehen
    2) (to be sent, passed on etc: Complaints have to go through the proper channels.) gehen
    3) (to be given, sold etc: The prize goes to John Smith; The table went for $100.) abgehen
    4) (to lead to: Where does this road go?) führen
    5) (to visit, to attend: He goes to school every day; I decided not to go to the movie.) gehen
    6) (to be destroyed etc: This wall will have to go.) verschwinden
    7) (to proceed, be done: The meeting went very well.) ablaufen
    8) (to move away: I think it is time you were going.) gehen
    9) (to disappear: My purse has gone!)
    10) (to do (some action or activity): I'm going for a walk; I'm going hiking next week-end.) im Begriff stehen, zu...
    11) (to fail etc: I think the clutch on this car has gone.) versagen
    12) (to be working etc: I don't think that clock is going.) gehen
    13) (to become: These apples have gone bad.) werden
    14) (to be: Many people in the world regularly go hungry.) sich befinden
    15) (to be put: Spoons go in that drawer.) gehören
    16) (to pass: Time goes quickly when you are enjoying yourself.) vorbeigehen
    17) (to be used: All her pocket-money goes on sweets.) draufgehen
    18) (to be acceptable etc: Anything goes in this office.) gehen
    19) (to make a particular noise: Dogs go woof, not miaow.) ertönen, machen
    20) (to have a particular tune etc: How does that song go?) gehen
    21) (to become successful etc: She always makes a party go.) erfolgreich
    2. noun
    1) (an attempt: I'm not sure how to do it, but I'll have a go.) der Versuch
    2) (energy: She's full of go.) der Schwung
    •
    3. adjective
    1) (successful: That shop is still a going concern.) gutgehend
    2) (in existence at present: the going rate for typing manuscripts.) bestehend
    •
    4. noun
    (permission: We'll start as soon as we get the go-ahead.) grünes Licht
    - go-getter
    - going-over
    - goings-on
    - no-go
    - all go
    - be going on for
    - be going on
    - be going strong
    - from the word go
    - get going
    - give the go-by
    - go about
    - go after
    - go against
    - go along
    - go along with
    - go around
    - go around with
    - go at
    - go back
    - go back on
    - go by
    - go down
    - go far
    - go for
    - go in
    - go in for
    - go into
    - go off
    - go on
    - go on at
    - go out
    - go over
    - go round
    - go slow
    - go steady
    - go through
    - go through with
    - go too far
    - go towards
    - go up
    - go up in smoke/flames
    - go with
    - go without
    - keep going
    - make a go of something
    - make a go
    - on the go
    * * *
    go
    [gəʊ, AM goʊ]
    <goes, went, gone>
    1. (proceed) gehen; vehicle, train fahren; plane fliegen
    don't \go any closer — that animal is dangerous geh' nicht näher ran — das Tier ist gefährlich
    the bus \goes from Vaihingen to Sillenbuch der Bus verkehrt zwischen Vaihingen und Sillenbuch
    a shiver went down my spine mir fuhr ein Schauer über den Rücken
    you \go first! geh du zuerst!
    you \go next du bist als Nächste(r) dran!
    hey, I \go now he, jetzt bin ich dran! fam
    the doll \goes everywhere with him die Puppe nimmt er überallhin mit
    drive to the end of the road, \go left, and... fahren Sie die Straße bis zum Ende entlang, biegen Sie dann links ab und...
    \go south till you get to the coast halte dich südlich, bis du zur Küste kommst
    we have a long way to \go wir haben noch einen weiten Weg vor uns
    we've completed all of our goals — where do we \go from here? wir haben all unsere Ziele erreicht — wie geht es jetzt weiter?
    the train hooted as it went into the tunnel der Zug pfiff, als er in den Tunnel einfuhr
    who \goes there? wer da?; (to dog)
    \go fetch it! hol'!
    ▪ to \go towards sb/sth auf jdn/etw zugehen
    to \go home nach Hause gehen
    to \go to hospital/a party/prison/the toilet ins Krankenhaus/auf eine Party/ins Gefängnis/auf die Toilette gehen
    to \go across to the pub rüber in die Kneipe gehen fam
    to \go to sea zur See gehen fam
    to \go across the street über die Straße gehen
    to \go aboard/ashore an Bord/Land gehen
    to \go below nach unten gehen
    to \go below deck unter Deck gehen
    to \go downhill ( also fig) bergab gehen
    to have it far to \go es weit haben
    to \go offstage [von der Bühne] abgehen
    to \go round sich akk drehen
    2. (in order to get)
    could you \go into the kitchen and get me something to drink, please? könntest du bitte in die Küche gehen und mir was zu trinken holen?
    would you \go and get me some things from the supermarket? würdest du mir ein paar Sachen vom Supermarkt mitbringen?
    I just want to \go and have a look at that antique shop over there ich möchte nur schnell einen Blick in das Antiquitätengeschäft da drüben werfen
    would you wait for me while I \go and fetch my coat? wartest du kurz auf mich, während ich meinen Mantel hole?
    I'll just \go and put my shoes on ich ziehe mir nur schnell die Schuhe on
    \go and wash your hands geh und wasch deine Hände
    she's gone to meet Brian at the station sie ist Brian vom Bahnhof abholen gegangen
    to \go and get some fresh air frische Luft schnappen gehen
    to \go to see sb jdn aufsuchen
    3. (travel) reisen
    have you ever gone to Africa before? warst du schon einmal in Afrika?
    to \go by bike/car/coach/train mit dem Fahrrad/Auto/Bus/Zug fahren
    to \go on a cruise eine Kreuzfahrt machen
    to \go on [a] holiday in Urlaub gehen
    to \go to Italy nach Italien fahren
    last year I went to Spain letztes Jahr war ich in Spanien
    to \go on a journey verreisen, eine Reise machen
    to \go by plane fliegen
    to \go on a trip eine Reise machen
    to \go abroad ins Ausland gehen
    4. (disappear) stain, keys verschwinden
    where have my keys gone? wo sind meine Schlüssel hin?
    ah, my tummy ache is gone! ah, meine Bauchschmerzen sind weg!
    I really don't know where all my money \goes ich weiß auch nicht, wo mein ganzes Geld hinverschwindet!
    half of my salary \goes on rent die Hälfte meines Gehaltes geht für die Miete drauf
    gone are the days when... vorbei sind die Zeiten, wo...
    here \goes my free weekend... das war's dann mit meinem freien Wochenende...
    all his money \goes on his car er steckt sein ganzes Geld in sein Auto
    there \goes another one! und wieder eine/einer weniger!
    hundreds of jobs will \go das wird Hunderte von Arbeitsplätzen kosten
    the president will have to \go der Präsident wird seinen Hut nehmen müssen
    that cat will have to \go die Katze muss verschwinden!
    all hope has gone jegliche Hoffnung ist geschwunden
    to \go adrift NAUT abtreiben, wegtreiben; ( fig) gestohlen werden
    one of my books has gone adrift from my desk eines meiner Bücher ist von meinem Schreibtisch verschwunden
    to \go missing BRIT, AUS verschwinden
    5. (leave) gehen
    we have to \go now [or it's time to \go] wir müssen jetzt gehen
    I must be \going ich muss jetzt allmählich gehen
    has she gone yet? ist sie noch da?
    the bus has gone der Bus ist schon weg; ( old)
    be gone! hinweg mit dir veraltet
    to let sth/sb \go, to let \go of sth/sb etw/jdn loslassen
    6. (do)
    to \go biking/jogging/shopping/swimming etc. Rad fahren/joggen/einkaufen/schwimmen etc. gehen
    to \go looking for sb/sth jdn/etw suchen gehen
    if you \go telling all my secrets,... wenn du hergehst und alle meine Geheimnisse ausplauderst,...
    don't you dare \go crying to your mum about this untersteh dich, deswegen heulend zu deiner Mama zu laufen
    to \go to church/a concert in die Kirche/ins Konzert gehen
    to \go to the cinema [or AM a movie] [or BRIT ( fam) the pictures] ins Kino gehen
    to \go to the doctor zum Arzt gehen
    to \go to kindergarten/school/university in den Kindergarten/in die Schule/auf die Universität gehen
    to \go on a pilgrimage auf Pilgerfahrt gehen
    I'll \go (phone) ich geh' ran; (door) ich mach' auf
    ▪ to \go as sth witch, pirate als etw gehen
    what shall I \go in? als was soll ich gehen?
    10. + adj (become) werden
    the line has gone dead die Leitung ist tot
    the milk's gone sour die Milch ist sauer
    the tyre has gone flat der Reifen ist platt
    my mind suddenly went blank ich hatte plötzlich wie ein Brett vorm Kopf sl
    I always \go red when I'm embarrassed ich werde immer rot, wenn mir etwas peinlich ist
    he described the new regulations as bureaucracy gone mad er bezeichnete die neuen Bestimmungen als Ausgeburt einer wild gewordenen Bürokratie
    I went cold mir wurde kalt
    she's gone Communist sie ist jetzt Kommunistin
    he's gone all environmental er macht jetzt voll auf Öko fam
    to \go bad food schlecht werden
    to \go bald/grey kahl/grau werden
    to \go bankrupt bankrottgehen
    to \go haywire (out of control) außer Kontrolle geraten; (malfunction) verrücktspielen fam
    to \go public an die Öffentlichkeit treten; STOCKEX an die Börse gehen
    to \go to sleep einschlafen
    11. + adj (be) sein
    to \go hungry hungern
    to \go thirsty dursten, durstig sein ÖSTERR
    to \go unmentioned/unnoticed/unsolved unerwähnt/unbemerkt/ungelöst bleiben
    12. (turn out) gehen
    how did your party \go? und, wie war deine Party?
    how's your thesis \going? was macht deine Doktorarbeit?
    how are things \going? und, wie läuft's? fam
    if everything \goes well... wenn alles gutgeht...
    things have gone well es ist gut gelaufen
    the way things \go wie das halt so geht
    the way things are \going at the moment... so wie es im Moment aussieht...
    to \go like a bomb ein Bombenerfolg sein fam
    to \go according to plan nach Plan laufen
    to \go from bad to worse vom Regen in die Traufe kommen
    to \go against/for sb election zu jds Ungunsten/Gunsten ausgehen
    to \go wrong schiefgehen, schieflaufen fam
    13. (pass) vergehen, verstreichen
    time seems to \go faster as you get older die Zeit scheint schneller zu vergehen, wenn man älter wird
    only two days to \go... nur noch zwei Tage...
    one week to \go till Christmas noch eine Woche bis Weihnachten
    in days gone by in längst vergangenen Zeiten
    two exams down, one to \go zwei Prüfungen sind schon geschafft, jetzt noch eine, dann ist es geschafft!
    I've three years to \go before I can retire mir fehlen noch drei Jahre bis zur Rente!
    14. (begin) anfangen
    ready to \go? bist du bereit?
    one, two, three, \go! eins, zwei, drei, los!
    we really must get \going with these proposals wir müssen uns jetzt echt an diese Konzepte setzen
    let's \go! los!
    here \goes! jetzt geht's los!
    15. (fail) kaputtgehen; hearing, health, memory nachlassen; rope reißen
    our computer is \going unser Computer gibt seinen Geist auf hum fam
    my jeans is gone at the knees meine Jeans ist an den Knien durchgescheuert
    her mind is \going sie baut geistig ganz schön ab! fam
    16. (die) sterben
    she went peacefully in her sleep sie starb friedlich im Schlaf
    17. (belong) hingehören
    I'll put it away if you tell me where it \goes ich räum's weg, wenn du mir sagst, wo es hingehört
    the silverware \goes in the drawer over there das Silber kommt in die Schublade da drüben
    those tools \go in the garage diese Werkzeuge gehören in die Garage
    that is to \go into my account das kommt auf mein Konto
    where do you want that to \go? wo soll das hin?
    that \goes under a different chapter das gehört in ein anderes Kapitel
    ▪ to \go to sb prize, house an jdn gehen; property auf jdn übergehen geh
    Manchester went to Labour Manchester ging an Labour
    19. (lead) road führen
    where does this trail \go? wohin führt dieser Pfad?
    20. (extend) gehen
    the meadow \goes all the way down to the road die Weide erstreckt sich bis hinunter zur Straße
    your idea is good enough, as far as it \goes... deine Idee ist so weit ganz gut,...
    the numbers on the paper \go from 1 to 10 die Nummern auf dem Blatt gehen von 1 bis 10
    21. (in auction) gehen
    I'll \go as high as £200 ich gehe bis zu 200 Pfund
    22. (function) watch gehen; machine laufen
    our business has been \going for twenty years unser Geschäft läuft seit zwanzig Jahren
    I'm not saying anything as long as the tape recorder is \going ich sage gar nichts, solange das Tonbandgerät läuft
    to \go slow ECON einen Bummelstreik machen; watch nachgehen
    to get sth \going [or to \go] [or to make sth \go] etw in Gang bringen
    to get a party \going eine Party in Fahrt bringen
    to get [or set] sb \going jdn in Fahrt bringen
    to keep \going person weitermachen; car weiterfahren
    come on! keep \going! ja, weiter! fam
    to keep sth \going etw in Gang halten; factory in Betrieb halten
    to keep a conversation \going eine Unterhaltung am Laufen halten
    to keep a fire \going ein Feuer am Brennen halten
    that thought kept me \going dieser Gedanke ließ mich durchhalten
    here's some food to keep you \going hier hast du erst mal was zu essen
    23. (have recourse) gehen
    to \go to court over sth wegen einer S. gen vor Gericht gehen
    to \go to the police zur Polizei gehen
    to \go to war in den Krieg ziehen
    24. (match, be in accordance)
    ▪ to \go [with sth] [zu etw dat] passen
    these two colours don't \go diese beiden Farben beißen sich
    to \go against logic unlogisch sein
    to \go against one's principles gegen jds Prinzipien verstoßen
    25. (fit)
    five \goes into ten two times [or five into ten \goes twice] fünf geht zweimal in zehn
    do you think all these things will \go into our little suitcase? glaubst du, das ganze Zeug wird in unseren kleinen Koffer passen? fam
    26. (be sold) weggehen fam
    \going, \going, gone! zum Ersten, zum Zweiten, [und] zum Dritten!
    pocketbooks are \going for $10 for the next two days in den nächsten zwei Tagen sind die Taschenbücher für 10 Dollar zu haben
    ▪ to \go to sb an jdn gehen
    to \go like hot cakes weggehen wie warme Semmeln fam
    to be \going cheap billig zu haben sein
    27. (serve, contribute)
    ▪ to \go [to sth] [zu etw dat] beitragen
    the money will \go to the victims of the earthquake das Geld ist für die Erdbebenopfer bestimmt
    this will \go towards your holiday das [Geld] ist für deinen Urlaub bestimmt
    your daughter's attitude only \goes to prove how much... die Einstellung deiner Tochter zeigt einmal mehr, wie sehr...
    28. (move) machen
    when I \go like this, my hand hurts wenn ich so mache, tut meine Hand weh
    \go like this with your hand to show that... mach so mit deiner Hand, um zu zeigen, dass...
    29. (sound) machen
    I think I heard the doorbell \go just now ich glaube, es hat gerade geklingelt
    there \goes the bell es klingelt
    ducks \go ‘quack’ Enten machen ‚quack‘
    with sirens \going ambulance mit heulender Sirene
    30. (accepted)
    anything \goes alles ist erlaubt
    that \goes for all of you das gilt für euch alle!
    31. (be told, sung) gehen; title, theory lauten
    I can never remember how that song \goes ich weiß nie, wie dieses Lied geht
    the story \goes that... es heißt, dass...
    the rumour \goes that... es geht das Gerücht, dass...
    as hospitals/things \go verglichen mit anderen Krankenhäusern/Dingen
    as things \go today it wasn't that expensive für heutige Verhältnisse war es gar nicht so teuer
    I really have to \go ich muss ganz dringend mal! fam
    I've gone and lost my earring ich habe meinen Ohrring verloren
    you've really gone and done it now! jetzt hast du aber was Schönes angerichtet! iron; (pej!)
    \go to hell! geh [o scher dich] zum Teufel! fam
    35. AM (in restaurant)
    do you want that pizza here or to \go? möchten Sie die Pizza hier essen oder mitnehmen?; AM
    I'd like a cheeseburger to \go, please ich hätte gerne einen Cheeseburger zum Mitnehmen
    36. (available)
    is there any beer \going? gibt es Bier?
    I'll have whatever is \going ich nehme das, was gerade da ist
    37. ( fam: treat)
    to \go easy on sb jdn schonend behandeln, jdn glimpflich davonkommen lassen
    38.
    ▶ to \go all out to do sth alles daransetzen, etw zu tun
    ▶ to \go Dutch getrennt zahlen
    ▶ easy come, easy \go ( prov) wie gewonnen, so zerronnen prov
    ▶ \go [and] get stuffed! ( fam) du kannst mich mal! fam
    ▶ to \go halves on sth sich dat etw je zur Hälfte teilen
    ▶ here we \go again ( fam) jetzt geht das wieder los! fam
    ▶ \go [and] take a running jump! mach bloß, dass du abhaust [o ÖSTERR verschwindest]! fam
    ▶ there you \go bitte schön!; (told you so) sag ich's doch! fam
    ▶ there he \goes again ( fam) jetzt fängt er schon wieder damit an! fam
    ▶ don't \go there ( fam) lass dich nicht darauf ein
    ▶ that \goes without saying das versteht sich von selbst
    ▪ to be \going to do sth etw tun werden
    we are \going to have a party tomorrow wir geben morgen eine Party
    he was \going to phone me this morning er wollte mich heute Morgen anrufen
    isn't she \going to accept the job after all? nimmt sie den Job nun doch nicht an?
    <goes, went, gone>
    ▪ to \go sth a route, a highway etw nehmen
    2. ( fam: say)
    ▪ to \go sth:
    she \goes to me: I never want to see you again! sie sagt zu mir: ich will dich nie wieder sehen!
    ▪ to \go sth etw reizen
    to \go nap die höchste Zahl von Stichen ansagen
    to not \go much on sth sich dat nicht viel aus etw dat machen
    ▪ to \go sth:
    my mind went a complete blank ich hatte voll ein Brett vorm Kopf! fam
    6.
    ▶ to \go it alone etw im Alleingang tun
    ▶ to \go it ( fam) es toll treiben fam; (move quickly) ein tolles Tempo drauf haben; (work hard) sich akk reinknien
    ▶ to \go a long way lange [vor]halten
    ▶ sb will \go a long way jd wird es weit bringen
    ▶ to \go nap alles auf eine Karte setzen
    ▶ to \go it some es laufenlassen fam
    IV. NOUN
    <pl -es>
    I'll have a \go at driving if you're tired ich kann dich mit dem Fahren ablösen, wenn du müde bist fam
    you've had your \go already! du warst schon dran!
    hey, it's Ken's \go now he, jetzt ist Ken dran
    can I have a \go? darf ich mal?
    to miss one \go einmal aussetzen; (not voluntarily) einmal übersprungen werden
    2. (attempt) Versuch m
    have a \go! versuch' es doch einfach mal! fam
    at one \go auf einen Schlag; (drink) in einem Zug fam
    all in one \go alle[s] auf einmal
    at the first \go auf Anhieb
    to give sth a \go etw versuchen
    to have a \go at sb (criticize) jdn runtermachen fam; (attack) über jdn herfallen
    his boss had a \go at him about his appearance sein Chef hat sich ihn wegen seines Äußeren vorgeknöpft fam
    members of the public are strongly advised not to have a \go at this man die Öffentlichkeit wird eindringlich davor gewarnt, etwas gegen diesen Mann zu unternehmen
    to have a \go at doing sth versuchen, etw zu tun
    to have several \goes at sth für etw akk mehrere Anläufe nehmen
    3. no pl (energy) Antrieb m, Elan m
    to be full of \go voller Elan sein
    4. esp BRIT ( fam: dose) Anfall m
    she had such a bad \go of the flu that she took a week off from work sie hatte so eine schlimme Grippe, dass sie eine Woche in Krankenstand ging
    it's all \go here hier ist immer was los fam
    it's all \go and no relaxing on those bus tours auf diesen Busfahrten wird nur gehetzt und man kommt nie zum Ausruhen fam
    I've got two projects on the \go at the moment ich habe momentan zwei Projekte gleichzeitig laufen
    to be on the \go [ständig] auf Trab sein
    I've been on the \go all day long ich war den ganzen Tag auf Achse fam
    to keep sb on the \go jdn auf Trab halten fam
    6.
    ▶ to be all the \go BRIT ( dated fam) der letzte Schrei sein
    ▶ to make a \go of sth mit etw dat Erfolg haben
    she's making a \go of her new antique shop ihr neues Antiquitätengeschäft ist ein voller Erfolg fam
    ▶ that was a near \go das war knapp
    ▶ it's no \go da ist nichts zu machen
    ▶ to be touch and \go auf der Kippe stehen fam
    ▶ from the word \go von Anfang an
    pred [start]klar, in Ordnung
    all systems [are] \go alles klar
    all systems \go, take-off in t minus 10 alle Systeme zeigen grün, Start in t minus 10
    * * *
    go1 [ɡəʊ]
    A pl goes [ɡəʊz] s
    1. Gehen n:
    a) (ständig) in Bewegung oder auf Achse
    b) obs im Verfall begriffen, im Dahinschwinden;
    from the word go umg von Anfang an
    2. Gang m, (Ver)Lauf m
    3. umg Schwung m, Schmiss m umg:
    he is full of go er hat Schwung, er ist voller Leben
    4. umg Mode f:
    it is all the go now es ist jetzt große Mode
    5. umg Erfolg m:
    make a go of sth etwas zu einem Erfolg machen;
    a) kein Erfolg,
    b) aussichts-, zwecklos;
    it’s no go es geht nicht, nichts zu machen
    6. umg Abmachung f:
    it’s a go! abgemacht!
    7. umg Versuch m:
    have a go at sth etwas probieren oder versuchen;
    let me have a go lass mich mal (probieren)!;
    have a go at sb jemandem was zu hören geben umg;
    at one go auf einen Schlag, auf Anhieb;
    in one go auf einen Sitz;
    at the first go gleich beim ersten Versuch;
    it’s your go du bist an der Reihe oder dran
    8. umg ( besonders unangenehme) Sache, Geschichte f:
    what a go! ’ne schöne Geschichte oder Bescherung!, so was Dummes!;
    it was a near go das ging gerade noch (einmal) gut
    9. umg
    a) Portion f (einer Speise)
    b) Glas n:
    his third go of brandy sein dritter Kognak
    10. Anfall m (einer Krankheit):
    my second go of influenza meine zweite Grippe
    B adj TECH umg funktionstüchtig
    C v/i prät went [went], pperf gone [ɡɒn; US ɡɔːn], 3. sg präs goes [ɡəʊz]
    1. gehen, fahren, reisen ( alle:
    to nach), sich (fort)bewegen:
    go on foot zu Fuß gehen;
    go by plane ( oder air) mit dem Flugzeug reisen, fliegen;
    go to Paris nach Paris reisen oder gehen;
    go to the country Br (das Parlament auflösen und) Neuwahlen ausschreiben; → horseback A, train A 1
    2. (fort)gehen, abfahren, abreisen (to nach):
    people were coming and going Leute kamen und gingen;
    who goes there? MIL wer da?;
    I must be going ich muss gehen oder weg oder fort; → let1 Bes Redew
    3. verkehren, fahren (Fahrzeuge)
    4. anfangen, loslegen, -gehen:
    go! SPORT los!;
    go to it! mach dich dran!, ran! (beide umg);
    here you go again! jetzt fängst du schon wieder an!;
    just go and try versuchs doch mal!;
    here goes! umg dann mal los!, ran (an den Speck)!
    5. gehen, führen (to nach):
    6. sich erstrecken, reichen, gehen (to bis):
    the belt does not go round her waist der Gürtel geht oder reicht nicht um ihre Taille;
    as far as it goes bis zu einem gewissen Grade;
    it goes a long way es reicht lange (aus)
    7. fig gehen:
    let it go at that lass es dabei bewenden; → all Bes Redew, anywhere 1, court A 10, expense Bes Redew, far Bes Redew, heart Bes Redew, nowhere A 2
    8. MATH (into) gehen (in akk), enthalten sein (in dat):
    9. gehen, passen ( beide:
    into, in in akk), fallen (to auf akk):
    it does not go into my pocket es geht oder passt nicht in meine Tasche;
    12 inches go to the foot 12 Zoll gehen auf oder bilden einen Fuß
    10. gehören (in, into in akk; on auf akk):
    the books go on the shelf die Bücher gehören in oder kommen auf das Regal;
    where does this go? wohin kommt das?
    11. (to) gehen (an akk) (Preis etc), zufallen (dat) (Erbe):
    the money is going to a good cause das Geld fließt einem guten Zweck zu oder kommt einem guten Zweck zugute!
    12. TECH gehen, laufen, funktionieren (alle auch fig):
    keep (set) sth going etwas in Gang halten (bringen);
    make things go die Sache in Schwung bringen; → get B 14, C 4, keep B 2
    13. werden, in einen (bestimmten) Zustand übergehen oder verfallen:
    your coffee will go cold dein Kaffee wird kalt;
    go blind erblinden;
    go Conservative zu den Konservativen übergehen; → bad1 A 13, hot A 3, mad A 1
    14. (gewöhnlich) (in einem Zustand) sein, sich ständig befinden:
    go armed bewaffnet sein;
    go in rags ständig in Lumpen herumlaufen;
    go hungry hungern;
    going sixteen im 16. Lebensjahr; → fear A 1, unheeded
    15. a) meist go with child schwanger sein
    b) go with young ZOOL trächtig sein
    16. (with) gehen (mit), sich halten oder anschließen (an akk): → tide1 A 3
    17. sich halten (by, on, upon an akk), gehen, handeln, sich richten, urteilen (on, upon nach):
    have nothing to go upon keine Anhaltspunkte haben;
    going by her clothes ihrer Kleidung nach (zu urteilen)
    18. umgehen, kursieren, im Umlauf sein (Gerüchte etc):
    the story goes that … es heißt oder man erzählt sich, dass …
    19. gelten ( for für):
    what he says goes umg was er sagt, gilt;
    that goes for all of you das gilt für euch alle;
    it goes without saying es versteht sich von selbst, (es ist) selbstverständlich
    20. gehen, laufen, bekannt sein:
    it goes by ( oder under) the name of … es läuft unter dem Namen …;
    my dog goes by the name of Rover mein Hund hört auf den Namen Rover
    21. as hotels go im Vergleich zu anderen Hotels;
    he’s a meek man, as men go er ist ein vergleichsweise sanftmütiger Mann
    22. vergehen, -streichen:
    how time goes! wie (doch) die Zeit vergeht!;
    one minute to go noch eine Minute;
    with five minutes to go SPORT fünf Minuten vor Spielende
    23. WIRTSCH weggehen, abgesetzt oder verkauft werden ( beide:
    at, for für):
    “everything must go” „Totalausverkauf“;
    go for nothing umsonst sein (Mühe etc); → cake A 1
    24. (on, in) aufgehen (in dat), ausgegeben werden (für):
    all his money goes on drink er gibt sein ganzes Geld für Alkohol aus
    25. dazu beitragen oder dienen ( to do zu tun), dienen (to zu), verwendet werden (to, toward[s] für, zu):
    it goes to show dies zeigt, daran erkennt man;
    this only goes to show you the truth dies dient nur dazu, Ihnen die Wahrheit zu zeigen
    26. verlaufen, sich entwickeln oder gestalten:
    how does the play go? wie geht oder welchen Erfolg hat das Stück?;
    things have gone badly with me es ist mir schlecht ergangen
    27. ausgehen, -fallen:
    the decision went against him die Entscheidung fiel zu seinen Ungunsten aus;
    it went well es ging gut (aus)
    28. Erfolg haben:
    go big umg ein Riesenerfolg sein
    29. (with) gehen, sich vertragen, harmonieren (mit), passen (zu):
    30. ertönen, erklingen, läuten (Glocke), schlagen (Uhr):
    the clock went five die Uhr schlug fünf;
    the doorbell went es klingelte oder läutete
    31. mit einem Knall etc losgehen:
    bang went the gun die Kanone machte bumm
    32. lauten (Worte etc):
    I forget how the words go mir fällt der Text im Moment nicht ein;
    this is how the tune goes so geht die Melodie;
    this song goes to the tune of … dieses Lied geht nach der Melodie von …
    33. gehen, verschwinden, abgeschafft werden:
    he must go er muss weg;
    these laws must go die Gesetze müssen verschwinden
    34. (dahin)schwinden:
    my eyesight is going meine Augen werden immer schlechter
    35. zum Erliegen kommen, zusammenbrechen (Handel etc)
    36. kaputtgehen (Sohlen etc)
    37. sterben
    38. (im ppr mit inf) zum Ausdruck einer Zukunft, besonders
    it is going to rain es gibt Regen, es wird (bald oder gleich) regnen;
    he is going to read it er wird oder will es (bald) lesen;
    she is going to have a baby sie bekommt ein Kind;
    what was going to be done? was sollte nun geschehen?
    39. (mit nachfolgendem ger) meist gehen:
    go swimming schwimmen gehen;
    you must not go telling him du darfst es ihm ja nicht sagen;
    he goes frightening people er erschreckt immer die Leute
    40. (daran)gehen, sich aufmachen oder anschicken:
    he went to find him er ging ihn suchen;
    she went to see him sie besuchte ihn;
    go fetch! bring es!, hol es!;
    he went and sold it umg er hat es tatsächlich verkauft; er war so dumm, es zu verkaufen
    41. “pizzas to go” (Schild) US „Pizzas zum Mitnehmen“
    42. erlaubt sein:
    everything goes in this place hier ist alles erlaubt
    43. besonders US umg wiegen:
    I went 90 kilos last year letztes Jahr hatte ich 90 Kilo
    D v/t
    1. einen Weg, eine Strecke etc gehen
    2. einen Betrag wetten, setzen (on auf akk)
    3. Kartenspiel: ansagen
    4. US umg eine Einladung oder Wette annehmen von:
    I’ll go you! ich nehme an!, gemacht!
    5. go it umg
    a) sich reinknien, (mächtig) rangehen,
    b) es toll treiben, auf den Putz hauen,
    c) handeln:
    go it alone einen Alleingang machen;
    go it! ran!, (immer) feste! umg
    go2 [ɡəʊ] Go n (japanisches Brettspiel)
    * * *
    1. intransitive verb,
    pres. he goes, p.t. went, pres. p. going, p.p. gone
    1) gehen; [Fahrzeug:] fahren; [Flugzeug:] fliegen; [Vierfüßer:] laufen; [Reptil:] kriechen; (on horseback etc.) reiten; (on skis, roller skates) laufen; (in wheelchair, pram, lift) fahren

    go by bicycle/car/bus/train or rail/boat or sea or ship — mit dem [Fahr]rad/Auto/Bus/Zug/Schiff fahren

    go by plane or air — fliegen

    go on foot — zu Fuß gehen; laufen (ugs.)

    as one goes [along] — (fig.) nach und nach

    do something as one goes [along] — (lit.) etwas beim Gehen od. unterwegs tun

    go on a journey — eine Reise machen; verreisen

    go first-class/at 50 m.p.h. — erster Klasse reisen od. fahren/80 Stundenkilometer fahren

    have far to go — weit zu gehen od. zu fahren haben; es weit haben

    the doll/dog goes everywhere with her — sie hat immer ihre Puppe/ihren Hund dabei

    there you go — (coll., giving something) bitte!; da! (ugs.)

    2) (proceed as regards purpose, activity, destination, or route) [Bus, Zug, Lift, Schiff:] fahren; (use means of transportation) fahren; (fly) fliegen; (proceed on outward journey) weg-, abfahren; (travel regularly) [Verkehrsmittel:] verkehren (from... to zwischen + Dat.... und)

    go to the toilet/cinema/moon/a museum/a funeral — auf die Toilette/ins Kino gehen/zum Mond fliegen/ins Museum/zu einer Beerdigung gehen

    go to the doctor['s] — etc. zum Arzt usw. gehen

    go [out] to China — nach China gehen

    go [over] to America — nach Amerika [hinüber]fliegen/-fahren

    go [off] to London — nach London [ab]fahren/[ab]fliegen

    go this/that way — hier/da entlanggehen/-fahren

    go out of one's way — einen Umweg machen; (fig.) keine Mühe scheuen

    go towards something/somebody — auf etwas/jemanden zugehen

    go by something/somebody — [Festzug usw.:] an etwas/jemandem vorbeiziehen; [Bus usw.:] an etwas/jemandem vorbeifahren

    go in and out [of something] — [in etwas (Dat.)] ein- und ausgehen

    go into something — in etwas (Akk.) [hinein]gehen

    go chasing after something/somebody — hinter etwas/jemandem herrennen (ugs.)

    go and do something — [gehen und] etwas tun

    go and see whether... — nachsehen [gehen], ob...

    go on a pilgrimage — etc. eine Pilgerfahrt usw. machen

    go on TV/the radio — im Fernsehen/Radio auftreten

    I'll go! — ich geh schon!; (answer phone) ich geh ran od. nehme ab; (answer door) ich mache auf

    you go! — (to the phone) geh du mal ran!

    3) (start) losgehen; (in vehicle) losfahren

    let's go! — (coll.) fangen wir an!

    here goes! — (coll.) dann mal los!

    whose turn is it to go? — (in game) wer ist an der Reihe?

    go first — (in game) anfangen

    from the word go — (fig. coll.) [schon] von Anfang an

    4) (pass, circulate, be transmitted) gehen

    a shiver went up or down my spine — ein Schauer lief mir über den Rücken od. den Rücken hinunter

    go to — (be given to) [Preis, Sieg, Gelder, Job:] gehen an (+ Akk.); [Titel, Krone, Besitz:] übergehen auf (+ Akk.); [Ehre, Verdienst:] zuteil werden (Dat.)

    go towards — (be of benefit to) zugute kommen (+ Dat.)

    go according to — (be determined by) sich richten nach

    5) (make specific motion, do something specific)

    go round — [Rad:] sich drehen

    there he etc. goes again — (coll.) da, schon wieder!

    here we go again — (coll.) jetzt geht das wieder los!

    6) (act, work, function effectively) gehen; [Mechanismus, Maschine:] laufen

    get the car to go — das Auto ankriegen (ugs.) od. starten

    keep going — (in movement) weitergehen/-fahren; (in activity) weitermachen; (not fail) sich aufrecht halten

    keep somebody going — (enable to continue) jemanden aufrecht halten

    make something go, get/set something going — etwas in Gang bringen

    7)

    go to — (attend)

    go to church/school — in die Kirche/die Schule gehen

    go to a comprehensive school — eine Gesamtschule besuchen; auf eine Gesamtschule gehen

    go to the relevant authority/UN — sich an die zuständige Behörde/UN wenden

    where do we go from here? — (fig.) und was nun? (ugs.)

    9) (depart) gehen; [Bus, Zug:] [ab]fahren; [Post:] rausgehen (ugs.)

    time to go! — wir müssen/ihr müsst usw. gehen!

    to go — (Amer.) [Speisen, Getränke:] zum Mitnehmen

    10) (euphem.): (die) sterben
    11) (fail) [Gedächtnis, Kräfte:] nachlassen; (cease to function) kaputtgehen; [Maschine, Computer usw.:] ausfallen; [Sicherung:] durchbrennen; (break) brechen; [Seil usw.:] reißen; (collapse) einstürzen; (fray badly) ausfransen
    12) (disappear) verschwinden; [Geruch, Rauch:] sich verziehen; [Geld, Zeit:] draufgehen (ugs.) (in, on für); (be relinquished) aufgegeben werden; [Tradition:] abgeschafft werden; (be dismissed) [Arbeitskräfte:] entlassen werden

    my coat/the stain has gone — mein Mantel/der Fleck ist weg

    where has my hat gone? — wo ist mein Hut [geblieben]?

    13) (elapse) [Zeit:] vergehen; [Interview usw.:] vorüber-, vorbeigehen
    14)

    to go — (still remaining)

    have something [still] to go — [noch] etwas übrig haben

    one week etc. to go to... — noch eine Woche usw. bis...

    there's only another mile to go — [es ist] nur noch eine Meile

    one down, two to go — einer ist bereits erledigt, bleiben noch zwei übrig (salopp)

    15) (be sold) weggehen (ugs.); verkauft werden

    it went for £1 — es ging für 1 Pfund weg

    16) (run) [Grenze, Straße usw.:] verlaufen, gehen; (afford access, lead) gehen; führen; (extend) reichen; (fig.) gehen

    as or so far as he/it goes — soweit

    17) (turn out, progress) [Ereignis, Projekt, Interview, Abend:] verlaufen

    go against somebody/something — [Wahl, Kampf:] zu jemandes/einer Sache Ungunsten ausgehen; [Entscheidung, Urteil:] zu jemandes/einer Sache Ungunsten ausfallen

    how did your holiday/party go? — wie war Ihr Urlaub/Ihre Party?

    how is the book going? — was macht [denn] das Buch?

    things have been going well/badly/smoothly — etc. in der letzten Zeit läuft alles gut/schief/glatt usw.

    how are things going?, how is it going? — wie steht's od. (ugs.) läuft's?

    18) (be, have form or nature, be in temporary state) sein; [Sprichwort, Gedicht, Titel:] lauten

    this is how things go, that's the way it goes — so ist es nun mal

    go hungry — hungern; hungrig bleiben

    go without food/water — es ohne Essen/Wasser aushalten

    go in fear of one's life — in beständiger Angst um sein Leben leben; see also go against

    19) (become) werden

    the constituency/York went Tory — der Wahlkreis/York ging an die Tories

    20) (have usual place) kommen; (belong) gehören

    where does the box go? — wo kommt od. gehört die Kiste hin?

    where do you want this chair to go? — wo soll od. kommt der Stuhl hin?

    21) (fit) passen

    go in[to] something — in etwas (Akk.) gehen od. [hinein]passen

    go through something — durch etwas [hindurch]gehen od. [hindurch]passen

    22) (harmonize, match) passen ( with zu)
    23) (serve, contribute) dienen

    the qualities that go to make a leader — die Eigenschaften, die einen Führer ausmachen

    it just goes to show that... — daran zeigt sich, dass...

    24) (make sound of specified kind) machen; (emit sound) [Turmuhr, Gong:] schlagen; [Glocke:] läuten

    There goes the bell. School is over — Es klingelt. Die Schule ist aus

    the fire alarm went at 3 a. m. — der Feueralarm ging um 3 Uhr morgens los

    25) as intensifier (coll.)

    don't go making or go and make him angry — verärgere ihn bloß nicht

    I gave him a £10 note and, of course, he had to go and lose it — (iron.) ich gab ihm einen 10-Pfund-Schein, und er musste ihn natürlich prompt verlieren

    now you've been and gone and done it! — (coll.) du hast ja was Schönes angerichtet! (ugs. iron.)

    go tell him I'm ready — (coll./Amer.) geh und sag ihm, dass ich fertig bin

    26) (coll.): (be acceptable or permitted) erlaubt sein; gehen (ugs.)

    everything/anything goes — es ist alles erlaubt

    it/that goes without saying — es/das ist doch selbstverständlich

    what he etc. says, goes — was er usw. sagt, gilt. See also going; gone

    2. transitive verb, forms as
    I
    1) (Cards) spielen
    2) (coll.)

    go it — es toll treiben; (work hard) rangehen

    go it! — los!; weiter!

    3. noun
    , pl. goes (coll.)
    1) (attempt, try) Versuch, der; (chance) Gelegenheit, die

    have a go — es versuchen od. probieren

    have a go at doing something — versuchen, etwas zu tun

    let me have/can I have a go? — lass mich [auch ein]mal/kann ich [auch ein]mal? (ugs.)

    in two/three goes — bei zwei/drei Versuchen

    2)

    have a go at somebody — (scold) sich (Dat.) jemanden vornehmen od. vorknöpfen (ugs.); (attack) über jemanden herfallen

    4) (energy) Schwung, der

    be full of go — voller Schwung od. Elan sein

    4. adjective
    (coll.)
    Phrasal Verbs:
    * * *
    (deer-) stalking expr.
    auf die Pirsch gehen ausdr. v.
    (§ p.,p.p.: went, gone)
    = funktionieren v.
    führen v.
    gehen v.
    (§ p.,pp.: ging, ist gegangen)

    English-german dictionary > go

  • 8 Language

       Philosophy is written in that great book, the universe, which is always open, right before our eyes. But one cannot understand this book without first learning to understand the language and to know the characters in which it is written. It is written in the language of mathematics, and the characters are triangles, circles, and other figures. Without these, one cannot understand a single word of it, and just wanders in a dark labyrinth. (Galileo, 1990, p. 232)
       It never happens that it [a nonhuman animal] arranges its speech in various ways in order to reply appropriately to everything that may be said in its presence, as even the lowest type of man can do. (Descartes, 1970a, p. 116)
       It is a very remarkable fact that there are none so depraved and stupid, without even excepting idiots, that they cannot arrange different words together, forming of them a statement by which they make known their thoughts; while, on the other hand, there is no other animal, however perfect and fortunately circumstanced it may be, which can do the same. (Descartes, 1967, p. 116)
       Human beings do not live in the object world alone, nor alone in the world of social activity as ordinarily understood, but are very much at the mercy of the particular language which has become the medium of expression for their society. It is quite an illusion to imagine that one adjusts to reality essentially without the use of language and that language is merely an incidental means of solving specific problems of communication or reflection. The fact of the matter is that the "real world" is to a large extent unconsciously built on the language habits of the group.... We see and hear and otherwise experience very largely as we do because the language habits of our community predispose certain choices of interpretation. (Sapir, 1921, p. 75)
       It powerfully conditions all our thinking about social problems and processes.... No two languages are ever sufficiently similar to be considered as representing the same social reality. The worlds in which different societies live are distinct worlds, not merely the same worlds with different labels attached. (Sapir, 1985, p. 162)
       [A list of language games, not meant to be exhaustive:]
       Giving orders, and obeying them- Describing the appearance of an object, or giving its measurements- Constructing an object from a description (a drawing)Reporting an eventSpeculating about an eventForming and testing a hypothesisPresenting the results of an experiment in tables and diagramsMaking up a story; and reading itPlay actingSinging catchesGuessing riddlesMaking a joke; and telling it
       Solving a problem in practical arithmeticTranslating from one language into another
       LANGUAGE Asking, thanking, cursing, greeting, and praying-. (Wittgenstein, 1953, Pt. I, No. 23, pp. 11 e-12 e)
       We dissect nature along lines laid down by our native languages.... The world is presented in a kaleidoscopic flux of impressions which has to be organized by our minds-and this means largely by the linguistic systems in our minds.... No individual is free to describe nature with absolute impartiality but is constrained to certain modes of interpretation even while he thinks himself most free. (Whorf, 1956, pp. 153, 213-214)
       We dissect nature along the lines laid down by our native languages.
       The categories and types that we isolate from the world of phenomena we do not find there because they stare every observer in the face; on the contrary, the world is presented in a kaleidoscopic flux of impressions which has to be organized by our minds-and this means largely by the linguistic systems in our minds.... We are thus introduced to a new principle of relativity, which holds that all observers are not led by the same physical evidence to the same picture of the universe, unless their linguistic backgrounds are similar or can in some way be calibrated. (Whorf, 1956, pp. 213-214)
       9) The Forms of a Person's Thoughts Are Controlled by Unperceived Patterns of His Own Language
       The forms of a person's thoughts are controlled by inexorable laws of pattern of which he is unconscious. These patterns are the unperceived intricate systematizations of his own language-shown readily enough by a candid comparison and contrast with other languages, especially those of a different linguistic family. (Whorf, 1956, p. 252)
       It has come to be commonly held that many utterances which look like statements are either not intended at all, or only intended in part, to record or impart straightforward information about the facts.... Many traditional philosophical perplexities have arisen through a mistake-the mistake of taking as straightforward statements of fact utterances which are either (in interesting non-grammatical ways) nonsensical or else intended as something quite different. (Austin, 1962, pp. 2-3)
       In general, one might define a complex of semantic components connected by logical constants as a concept. The dictionary of a language is then a system of concepts in which a phonological form and certain syntactic and morphological characteristics are assigned to each concept. This system of concepts is structured by several types of relations. It is supplemented, furthermore, by redundancy or implicational rules..., representing general properties of the whole system of concepts.... At least a relevant part of these general rules is not bound to particular languages, but represents presumably universal structures of natural languages. They are not learned, but are rather a part of the human ability to acquire an arbitrary natural language. (Bierwisch, 1970, pp. 171-172)
       In studying the evolution of mind, we cannot guess to what extent there are physically possible alternatives to, say, transformational generative grammar, for an organism meeting certain other physical conditions characteristic of humans. Conceivably, there are none-or very few-in which case talk about evolution of the language capacity is beside the point. (Chomsky, 1972, p. 98)
       [It is] truth value rather than syntactic well-formedness that chiefly governs explicit verbal reinforcement by parents-which renders mildly paradoxical the fact that the usual product of such a training schedule is an adult whose speech is highly grammatical but not notably truthful. (R. O. Brown, 1973, p. 330)
       he conceptual base is responsible for formally representing the concepts underlying an utterance.... A given word in a language may or may not have one or more concepts underlying it.... On the sentential level, the utterances of a given language are encoded within a syntactic structure of that language. The basic construction of the sentential level is the sentence.
       The next highest level... is the conceptual level. We call the basic construction of this level the conceptualization. A conceptualization consists of concepts and certain relations among those concepts. We can consider that both levels exist at the same point in time and that for any unit on one level, some corresponding realizate exists on the other level. This realizate may be null or extremely complex.... Conceptualizations may relate to other conceptualizations by nesting or other specified relationships. (Schank, 1973, pp. 191-192)
       The mathematics of multi-dimensional interactive spaces and lattices, the projection of "computer behavior" on to possible models of cerebral functions, the theoretical and mechanical investigation of artificial intelligence, are producing a stream of sophisticated, often suggestive ideas.
       But it is, I believe, fair to say that nothing put forward until now in either theoretic design or mechanical mimicry comes even remotely in reach of the most rudimentary linguistic realities. (Steiner, 1975, p. 284)
       The step from the simple tool to the master tool, a tool to make tools (what we would now call a machine tool), seems to me indeed to parallel the final step to human language, which I call reconstitution. It expresses in a practical and social context the same understanding of hierarchy, and shows the same analysis by function as a basis for synthesis. (Bronowski, 1977, pp. 127-128)
        t is the language donn eґ in which we conduct our lives.... We have no other. And the danger is that formal linguistic models, in their loosely argued analogy with the axiomatic structure of the mathematical sciences, may block perception.... It is quite conceivable that, in language, continuous induction from simple, elemental units to more complex, realistic forms is not justified. The extent and formal "undecidability" of context-and every linguistic particle above the level of the phoneme is context-bound-may make it impossible, except in the most abstract, meta-linguistic sense, to pass from "pro-verbs," "kernals," or "deep deep structures" to actual speech. (Steiner, 1975, pp. 111-113)
       A higher-level formal language is an abstract machine. (Weizenbaum, 1976, p. 113)
       Jakobson sees metaphor and metonymy as the characteristic modes of binarily opposed polarities which between them underpin the two-fold process of selection and combination by which linguistic signs are formed.... Thus messages are constructed, as Saussure said, by a combination of a "horizontal" movement, which combines words together, and a "vertical" movement, which selects the particular words from the available inventory or "inner storehouse" of the language. The combinative (or syntagmatic) process manifests itself in contiguity (one word being placed next to another) and its mode is metonymic. The selective (or associative) process manifests itself in similarity (one word or concept being "like" another) and its mode is metaphoric. The "opposition" of metaphor and metonymy therefore may be said to represent in effect the essence of the total opposition between the synchronic mode of language (its immediate, coexistent, "vertical" relationships) and its diachronic mode (its sequential, successive, lineal progressive relationships). (Hawkes, 1977, pp. 77-78)
       It is striking that the layered structure that man has given to language constantly reappears in his analyses of nature. (Bronowski, 1977, p. 121)
       First, [an ideal intertheoretic reduction] provides us with a set of rules"correspondence rules" or "bridge laws," as the standard vernacular has it-which effect a mapping of the terms of the old theory (T o) onto a subset of the expressions of the new or reducing theory (T n). These rules guide the application of those selected expressions of T n in the following way: we are free to make singular applications of their correspondencerule doppelgangers in T o....
       Second, and equally important, a successful reduction ideally has the outcome that, under the term mapping effected by the correspondence rules, the central principles of T o (those of semantic and systematic importance) are mapped onto general sentences of T n that are theorems of Tn. (P. Churchland, 1979, p. 81)
       If non-linguistic factors must be included in grammar: beliefs, attitudes, etc. [this would] amount to a rejection of the initial idealization of language as an object of study. A priori such a move cannot be ruled out, but it must be empirically motivated. If it proves to be correct, I would conclude that language is a chaos that is not worth studying.... Note that the question is not whether beliefs or attitudes, and so on, play a role in linguistic behavior and linguistic judgments... [but rather] whether distinct cognitive structures can be identified, which interact in the real use of language and linguistic judgments, the grammatical system being one of these. (Chomsky, 1979, pp. 140, 152-153)
        23) Language Is Inevitably Influenced by Specific Contexts of Human Interaction
       Language cannot be studied in isolation from the investigation of "rationality." It cannot afford to neglect our everyday assumptions concerning the total behavior of a reasonable person.... An integrational linguistics must recognize that human beings inhabit a communicational space which is not neatly compartmentalized into language and nonlanguage.... It renounces in advance the possibility of setting up systems of forms and meanings which will "account for" a central core of linguistic behavior irrespective of the situation and communicational purposes involved. (Harris, 1981, p. 165)
       By innate [linguistic knowledge], Chomsky simply means "genetically programmed." He does not literally think that children are born with language in their heads ready to be spoken. He merely claims that a "blueprint is there, which is brought into use when the child reaches a certain point in her general development. With the help of this blueprint, she analyzes the language she hears around her more readily than she would if she were totally unprepared for the strange gabbling sounds which emerge from human mouths. (Aitchison, 1987, p. 31)
       Looking at ourselves from the computer viewpoint, we cannot avoid seeing that natural language is our most important "programming language." This means that a vast portion of our knowledge and activity is, for us, best communicated and understood in our natural language.... One could say that natural language was our first great original artifact and, since, as we increasingly realize, languages are machines, so natural language, with our brains to run it, was our primal invention of the universal computer. One could say this except for the sneaking suspicion that language isn't something we invented but something we became, not something we constructed but something in which we created, and recreated, ourselves. (Leiber, 1991, p. 8)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Language

  • 9 Cognitive Science

       The basic idea of cognitive science is that intelligent beings are semantic engines-in other words, automatic formal systems with interpretations under which they consistently make sense.... [P]eople and intelligent computers turn out to be merely different manifestations of the same underlying phenomenon. (Haugeland, 1981b, p. 31)
       2) Experimental Psychology, Theoretical Linguistics, and Computational Simulation of Cognitive Processes Are All Components of Cognitive Science
       I went away from the Symposium with a strong conviction, more intuitive than rational, that human experimental psychology, theoretical linguistics, and computer simulation of cognitive processes were all pieces of a larger whole, and that the future would see progressive elaboration and coordination of their shared concerns.... I have been working toward a cognitive science for about twenty years beginning before I knew what to call it. (G. A. Miller, 1979, p. 9)
        Cognitive Science studies the nature of cognition in human beings, other animals, and inanimate machines (if such a thing is possible). While computers are helpful within cognitive science, they are not essential to its being. A science of cognition could still be pursued even without these machines.
        Computer Science studies various kinds of problems and the use of computers to solve them, without concern for the means by which we humans might otherwise resolve them. There could be no computer science if there were no machines of this kind, because they are indispensable to its being. Artificial Intelligence is a special branch of computer science that investigates the extent to which the mental powers of human beings can be captured by means of machines.
       There could be cognitive science without artificial intelligence but there could be no artificial intelligence without cognitive science. One final caveat: In the case of an emerging new discipline such as cognitive science there is an almost irresistible temptation to identify the discipline itself (as a field of inquiry) with one of the theories that inspired it (such as the computational conception...). This, however, is a mistake. The field of inquiry (or "domain") stands to specific theories as questions stand to possible answers. The computational conception should properly be viewed as a research program in cognitive science, where "research programs" are answers that continue to attract followers. (Fetzer, 1996, pp. xvi-xvii)
       What is the nature of knowledge and how is this knowledge used? These questions lie at the core of both psychology and artificial intelligence.
       The psychologist who studies "knowledge systems" wants to know how concepts are structured in the human mind, how such concepts develop, and how they are used in understanding and behavior. The artificial intelligence researcher wants to know how to program a computer so that it can understand and interact with the outside world. The two orientations intersect when the psychologist and the computer scientist agree that the best way to approach the problem of building an intelligent machine is to emulate the human conceptual mechanisms that deal with language.... The name "cognitive science" has been used to refer to this convergence of interests in psychology and artificial intelligence....
       This working partnership in "cognitive science" does not mean that psychologists and computer scientists are developing a single comprehensive theory in which people are no different from machines. Psychology and artificial intelligence have many points of difference in methods and goals.... We simply want to work on an important area of overlapping interest, namely a theory of knowledge systems. As it turns out, this overlap is substantial. For both people and machines, each in their own way, there is a serious problem in common of making sense out of what they hear, see, or are told about the world. The conceptual apparatus necessary to perform even a partial feat of understanding is formidable and fascinating. (Schank & Abelson, 1977, pp. 1-2)
       Within the last dozen years a general change in scientific outlook has occurred, consonant with the point of view represented here. One can date the change roughly from 1956: in psychology, by the appearance of Bruner, Goodnow, and Austin's Study of Thinking and George Miller's "The Magical Number Seven"; in linguistics, by Noam Chomsky's "Three Models of Language"; and in computer science, by our own paper on the Logic Theory Machine. (Newell & Simon, 1972, p. 4)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Cognitive Science

  • 10 go

    ɡəu
    1. 3rd person singular present tense - goes; verb
    1) (to walk, travel, move etc: He is going across the field; Go straight ahead; When did he go out?) ir
    2) (to be sent, passed on etc: Complaints have to go through the proper channels.) enviar, tramitar, pasar
    3) (to be given, sold etc: The prize goes to John Smith; The table went for $100.) vender(se), darse
    4) (to lead to: Where does this road go?) ir, llevar
    5) (to visit, to attend: He goes to school every day; I decided not to go to the movie.) ir, acudir
    6) (to be destroyed etc: This wall will have to go.) desaparecer, destruir, demoler
    7) (to proceed, be done: The meeting went very well.) ir, desarrollarse
    8) (to move away: I think it is time you were going.) irse, partir, marcharse
    9) (to disappear: My purse has gone!) desaparecer, esfumarse
    10) (to do (some action or activity): I'm going for a walk; I'm going hiking next week-end.) ir a
    11) (to fail etc: I think the clutch on this car has gone.) averiarse
    12) (to be working etc: I don't think that clock is going.) ir bien, funcionar
    13) (to become: These apples have gone bad.) volverse, ponerse
    14) (to be: Many people in the world regularly go hungry.) ir, ponerse, guardarse, colocarse
    15) (to be put: Spoons go in that drawer.) pasar, transcurrir
    16) (to pass: Time goes quickly when you are enjoying yourself.) valer, estar permitido, ser aceptable
    17) (to be used: All her pocket-money goes on sweets.) hacer
    18) (to be acceptable etc: Anything goes in this office.) ser, estar, tener
    19) (to make a particular noise: Dogs go woof, not miaow.) gastarse, utilizarse, usarse
    20) (to have a particular tune etc: How does that song go?) ser, decir
    21) (to become successful etc: She always makes a party go.) funcionar, triunfar, salir bien

    2. noun
    1) (an attempt: I'm not sure how to do it, but I'll have a go.) intento
    2) (energy: She's full of go.) energía, empuje
    •

    3. adjective
    1) (successful: That shop is still a going concern.) próspero, que funciona bien
    2) (in existence at present: the going rate for typing manuscripts.) actual, del momento
    •

    4. noun
    (permission: We'll start as soon as we get the go-ahead.) luz verde, visto bueno
    - going-over
    - goings-on
    - no-go
    - all go
    - be going on for
    - be going on
    - be going strong
    - from the word go
    - get going
    - give the go-by
    - go about
    - go after
    - go against
    - go along
    - go along with
    - go around
    - go around with
    - go at
    - go back
    - go back on
    - go by
    - go down
    - go far
    - go for
    - go in
    - go in for
    - go into
    - go off
    - go on
    - go on at
    - go out
    - go over
    - go round
    - go slow
    - go steady
    - go through
    - go through with
    - go too far
    - go towards
    - go up
    - go up in smoke/flames
    - go with
    - go without
    - keep going
    - make a go of something
    - make a go
    - on the go
    go1 n
    1. turno
    whose go is it? ¿a quién le toca?
    2. intento
    can I have a go? ¿puedo intentarlo yo?
    go2 vb
    1. ir / irse
    who did you go with? ¿con quién fuiste?
    2. salir
    3. ir / salir
    4. funcionar
    does this clock go? ¿funciona este reloj?
    5. volverse / quedarse
    6. desaparecer
    my wallet has gone! ¡ha desaparecido mi cartera!
    7. terminarse / acabarse
    all the cheese has gone se ha terminado el queso / no queda nada de queso
    has the pain gone? ¿se te ha pasado el dolor?
    8. pasar
    go
    tr[gəʊ]
    1 (energy) energía, empuje nombre masculino
    2 (turn) turno
    3 (try) intento
    4 (start) principio
    intransitive verb (pt went tr[went], pp gone tr[gɒn], ger going)
    1 (gen) ir
    2 (leave) marcharse, irse; (bus, train, etc) salir
    ■ let's go! ¡vámonos!
    3 (vanish) desaparecer
    4 (function) funcionar, marchar
    5 (become) volverse, ponerse, quedarse
    ■ to go deaf volverse sordo,-a
    6 (fit) entrar, caber
    7 (break) romperse, estropearse; (yield) ceder; (blow) fundirse
    8 (be kept) guardarse
    9 (sell) venderse
    10 (progress) ir, marchar, andar
    11 (be spent on) irse, gastarse
    12 (be available) quedar, haber
    ■ is there any more meat going? ¿queda algo de carne?
    ■ almost anything goes to win para ganar, casi todo vale
    14 (make a noise, gesture, etc) hacer
    16 (say) decir
    ■ there she goes again otra vez con el mismo rollo, otra vez con la misma canción
    2 (travel) hacer, recorrer
    ■ ready, steady, go! ¡preparados, listos, ya!
    \
    SMALLIDIOMATIC EXPRESSION/SMALL
    go on! (incredulity) ¡no me digas!, ¡vaya!, ¡anda ya! 2 (coaxing) ¡venga!, ¡adelante!
    it's no go es inútil, no hay nada que hacer
    to be all the go estar muy de moda
    to go about one's business ocuparse de sus asuntos
    to be going to estar a punto de
    ■ they were just going to start, when it started to rain estaban a punto de empezar, cuando la lluvia hizo acto de presencia
    to go too far ir demasiado lejos, pasarse de la raya, pasarse
    to go to sleep dormirse
    to have a go at somebody criticar a alguien, meterse con alguien
    to make a go of something tener éxito en algo
    go ['go:] v, went ['wɛnt] ; gone ['gɔn 'gɑn] ; going ; goes ['go:z] vi
    1) proceed: ir
    to go slow: ir despacio
    to go shopping: ir de compras
    2) leave: irse, marcharse, salir
    let's go!: ¡vámonos!
    the train went on time: el tren salió a tiempo
    3) disappear: desaparecer, pasarse, irse
    her fear is gone: se le ha pasado el miedo
    my pen is gone!: ¡mi pluma desapareció!
    4) extend: ir, extenderse, llegar
    this road goes to the river: este camino se extiende hasta el río
    to go from top to bottom: ir de arriba abajo
    5) function: funcionar, marchar
    the car won't go: el coche no funciona
    to get something going: poner algo en marcha
    6) sell: venderse
    it goes for $15: se vende por $15
    7) progress: ir, andar, seguir
    my exam went well: me fue bien en el examen
    how did the meeting go?: ¿qué tal la reunión?
    8) become: volverse, quedarse
    he's going crazy: está volviéndose loco
    the tire went flat: la llanta se desinfló
    9) fit: caber
    it will go through the door: cabe por la puerta
    anything goes! : ¡todo vale!
    to go : faltar
    only 10 days to go: faltan sólo 10 días
    to go back on : faltar uno a (su promesa)
    to go bad spoil: estropearse, echarse a perder
    to go for : interesarse uno en, gustarle a uno (algo, alguien)
    I don't go for that: eso no me interesa
    to go off explode: estallar
    to go with match: armonizar con, hacer juego con
    go v aux
    I'm going to write a letter: voy a escribir una carta
    it's not going to last: no va a durar
    go n, pl goes
    1) attempt: intento m
    to have a go at: intentar, probar
    2) success: éxito m
    3) energy: energía f, empuje m
    to be on the go: no parar, no descansar
    go
    v.
    (§ p.,p.p.: went, gone) = andar v.
    (§pret: anduv-)
    • caminar v.
    • correr v.
    • funcionar v.
    • ir v.
    (§pres: voy, vas...), subj: vay-, imp: ib-, pret: fu-•)
    • marchar v.

    I
    1. gəʊ
    1) (3rd pers sing pres goes; past went; past p gone) intransitive verb
    2)
    a) (move, travel) ir*

    who goes there? — ( Mil) ¿quién va?

    are you going my way? — ¿vas hacia el mismo sitio que yo?

    where do we go from here? — ¿y ahora qué hacemos?

    b) (start moving, acting)

    go when the lights turn green — avanza or (fam) dale cuando el semáforo se ponga verde

    ready, (get) set, go! — preparados or en sus marcas, listos ya!

    there you go — (colloq) ( handing something over) toma or aquí tienes; ( something is ready) ya está or listo

    don't go telling everybody — (colloq) no vayas a contárselo a todo el mundo

    3) (past p gone/been)
    a) ( travel to) ir*

    where are you going? — ¿adónde vas?

    to go by car/bus/plane — ir* en coche/autobús/avión

    to go on foot/horseback — ir* a pie/a caballo

    to go for a walk/drive — ir* a dar un paseo/una vuelta en coche

    to go to + inf — ir* a + inf

    they've been to see the exhibition — han visitado la exposición, han estado en la exposición

    to go and + inf — ir* a + inf

    go and see what she wants — anda or vete a ver qué quiere

    b) ( attend) ir*

    to go on a training course — hacer* un curso de capacitación

    to go on a diet — ponerse* a régimen

    to go -ing — ir* a + inf

    to go swimming/hunting — ir* a nadar/cazar

    4) (attempt, make as if to)

    to go to + inf — ir* a + inf

    5) (leave, depart) \<\<visitor\>\> irse*, marcharse (esp Esp); \<\<busain\>\> salir*

    well, I must be going — bueno, me tengo que ir ya

    to leave go — soltar*; let II 1) c)

    6)
    a) ( pass) \<\<time\>\> pasar

    it's just gone nine o'clock — (BrE) son las nueve pasadas

    b) ( disappear) \<\<headache/fear\>\> pasarse or irse* (+ me/te/le etc); \<\<energy/confidence\>\> desaparecer*

    has the pain gone? — ¿se te (or le etc) ha pasado or ido el dolor?

    c) \<\<money/food\>\> ( be spent) irse*; ( be used up) acabarse

    what do you spend it all on? - I don't know, it just goes — ¿en qué te lo gastas? - no sé, se (me) va como el agua

    the money/cream has all gone — se ha acabado el dinero/la crema

    to go on something: half his salary goes on drink — la mitad del sueldo se le va en bebida

    7)

    that sofa will have to go — nos vamos (or se van etc) a tener que deshacer de ese sofá

    b) ( be sold) venderse

    the bread has all gone — no queda pan, el pan se ha vendido todo

    the painting went for £1,000 — el cuadro se vendió en 1.000 libras

    going, going, gone — a la una, a las dos, vendido

    8)
    a) (cease to function, wear out) \<\<bulb/fuse\>\> fundirse; \<\<thermostat/fan/exhaust\>\> estropearse

    her memory/eyesight is going — está fallándole or está perdiendo la memoria/la vista

    the brakes went as we... — los frenos fallaron cuando...

    b) ( die) (colloq) morir*
    a) ( remaining)

    I still have 50 pages to go — todavía me faltan or me quedan 50 páginas

    b) ( take away) (AmE)
    10)
    a) ( lead) \<\<path/road\>\> ir*, llevar
    b) (extend, range) \<\<road/railway line\>\> ir*

    it only goes as far as Croydon — sólo va or llega hasta Croydon

    to go from... to... — \<\<prices/ages/period\>\> ir* de... a... or desde... hasta...

    11)
    a) ( have place) ir*; ( fit) caber*; see also go in, go into

    5 into 11 won't o doesn't go — 11 no es divisible por 5

    12)
    a) ( become)

    to go blind/deaf — quedarse ciego/sordo

    to go crazy — volverse* loco

    to go mouldy — (BrE) enmohecerse*

    to go sour — agriarse, ponerse* agrio

    b) (be, remain)

    to go barefoot/naked — ir* or andar* descalzo/desnudo

    13) (turn out, proceed, progress) ir*

    how are things going? — ¿cómo van or andan las cosas?

    14)
    a) ( be available) (only in -ing form)

    is there any coffee going? — (BrE) ¿hay café?

    it's not expensive as dishwashers go — no es caro, para lo que cuestan los lavavajillas

    15)
    a) (function, work) \<\<heater/engine/clock\>\> funcionar

    to have a lot going for one — tener* muchos puntos a favor

    to have a good thing going: we've got a good thing going here — esto marcha muy bien

    b)

    to get going: the car's OK once it gets going el coche marcha bien una vez que arranca; I find it hard to get going in the mornings me cuesta mucho entrar en acción por la mañana; it's late, we'd better get going es tarde, más vale que nos vayamos; to get something going: we tried to get a fire going tratamos de hacer fuego; we need some music to get the party going hace falta un poco de música para animar la fiesta; to get somebody going: all this stupid nonsense really gets me going — estas estupideces me sacan de quicio

    c)

    to keep going — ( continue to function) aguantar; ( not stop) seguir*

    to keep a project going — mantener* a flote un proyecto

    16) (continue, last out) seguir*

    how long can you go before you need a break? — ¿cuánto aguantas sin descansar?

    we can go for weeks without seeing a soul — podemos estar or pasar semanas enteras sin ver un alma

    17)
    a) ( sound) \<\<bell/siren\>\> sonar*
    b) (make sound, movement) hacer*
    18)

    to go to + inf: everything that goes to make a good school todo lo que contribuye a que una escuela sea buena; that just goes to prove my point eso confirma lo que yo decía or prueba que tengo razón; it just goes to show: we can't leave them on their own — está visto que no los podemos dejar solos

    b) ( be used)

    to go toward something/to + inf: all their savings are going toward the trip van a gastar todos sus ahorros en el viaje; the money will go to pay the workmen — el dinero se usará para pagar a los obreros

    19) (run, be worded) \<\<poem/prayer\>\> decir*

    how does the song go? — ¿cómo es la (letra/música de la) canción?

    20)

    anything goes — todo vale, cualquier cosa está bien

    b) (be necessarily obeyed, believed)

    what the boss says goes — lo que dice el jefe, va a misa

    c) (match, suit) pegar*, ir*

    that shirt and that tie don't really go — esa camisa no pega or no va or no queda bien con esa corbata; see also go together, go with

    21) ( have turn) ( Games) ir*, jugar*

    2.
    vt ( say) (colloq) ir* y decir* (fam)

    that's enough of that, he goes — -ya está bueno -va y dice


    3.
    v aux (only in -ing form)
    to be going to + inf
    a) ( expressing intention) ir* a + inf

    I was just going to make some coffee — iba a or estaba por hacer café

    b) (expressing near future, prediction) ir* a + inf
    Phrasal Verbs:

    II
    noun (pl goes)
    1) c
    a) ( attempt)

    he emptied the bottle at o in one go — vació la botella de un tirón or de una sentada (fam)

    go at something/-ing: it's my first go at writing for radio es la primera vez que escribo para la radio; I want to have a go at learning Arabic quiero intentar aprender árabe; have a go prueba a ver, inténtalo; I've had a good go at the kitchen le he dado una buena pasada or un buen repaso a la cocina; it's no go es imposible; to give something a go (BrE) intentar algo; to have a go at somebody (colloq): she had a go at me for not having told her se la agarró conmigo por no habérselo dicho (fam); to make a go of something — sacar* algo adelante

    b) ( turn)

    whose go is it? — ¿a quién le toca?

    can I have a go on your typewriter? — ¿me dejas probar tu máquina de escribir?

    2) u (energy, drive) empuje m, dinamismo m

    (to be) on the go: I've been on the go all morning no he parado en toda la mañana; he's got three jobs on the go — (BrE) está haciendo tres trabajos a la vez


    III
    adjective (pred)

    all systems go — todo listo or luz verde para despegar

    [ɡǝʊ] (vb: pt went) (pp gone) (N: pl goes) When go is part of a set combination such as go cheap, go far, go down the tube, look up the other word.
    1. INTRANSITIVE VERB
    1) (=move, travel) ir

    • to go and do sth — ir a hacer algo

    now you've gone and done it! * — ¡ahora sí que la has hecho buena!

    to go and see sb, go to see sb — ir a ver a algn

    • to go along a corridor — ir por un pasillo

    • we can talk as we go — podemos hablar por el camino

    add the sugar, stirring as you go — añada el azúcar, removiendo al mismo tiempo, añada el azúcar, sin dejar de remover

    • to go at 30 mph — ir a 30 millas por hora

    • to go by car/bicycle — ir en coche/bicicleta

    • the train goes from London to Glasgow — el tren va de Londres a Glasgow

    • to go home — irse a casa

    • to go on a journey — ir de viaje

    • there he goes! — ¡ahí va!

    • to go to a party — ir a una fiesta

    • where do we go from here? — (fig) ¿qué hacemos ahora?

    • halt, who goes there? — alto, ¿quién va or vive?

    2) (=depart) [person] irse, marcharse; [train, coach] salir

    I'm going now — me voy ya, me marcho ya

    "where's Judy?" - "she's gone" — -¿dónde está Judy? -se ha ido or se ha marchado

    "food to go" — (US) "comida para llevar"

    3) euph (=die) irse
    4) (=disappear) [object] desaparecer; [money] gastarse; [time] pasar

    • the cake is all gone — se ha acabado todo el pastel

    • gone are the days when... — ya pasaron los días cuando...

    • that sideboard will have to go — tendremos que deshacernos de ese aparador

    • military service must go! — ¡fuera con el servicio militar!

    • there goes my chance of promotion! — ¡adiós a mi ascenso!

    • only two days to go — solo faltan dos días

    missing 1., 1)
    5) (=be sold) venderse ( for por, en)

    it went for £100 — se vendió por or en 100 libras

    going, going, gone! — (at auction) ¡a la una, a las dos, a las tres!

    6) (=extend) extenderse, llegar

    • the garden goes down to the lake — el jardín se extiende or llega hasta el lago

    • money doesn't go far nowadays — hoy día el dinero apenas da para nada

    • he went up to £1,000 — (at auction) llegó a las 1.000 libras

    7) (=function) [machine] funcionar

    it's a magnificent car but it doesn't go — es un coche magnífico, pero no funciona

    the washing machine was going so I didn't hear the phone — la lavadora estaba en marcha, así es que no oí el teléfono

    to make sth go, to get sth going — poner algo en marcha

    8) (=endure) aguantar

    to go hungry/thirsty — pasar hambre/sed

    9) (with activities, hobbies)

    to go fishing/riding/swimming — ir a pescar/montar a caballo/nadar

    • to go for a walk — dar un paseo

    to go for a swim — ir a nadar or a bañarse

    10) (=progress) ir

    • how did the exam go? — ¿cómo te fue en el examen?

    what goes? — (US) * ¿qué tal? *, ¿qué tal va? *, ¡qué hubo! (Mex, Chile) *

    • to make a party go (with a swing) — dar ambiente a una fiesta

    • the day went slowly — el día pasó lentamente

    • all went well for him until... — todo le fue bien hasta que...

    11) (=match, combine with) [colours, clothes] hacer juego, pegar * ( with con)

    mustard and lamb don't go, mustard doesn't go with lamb — la mostaza no va bien con el cordero, la mostaza no pega con el cordero *

    12) (=become)
    For phrases with go and an adjective, such as to go bad, go soft, go pale, you should look under the adjective.

    to go red/green — ponerse rojo/verde

    you're not going to go all sentimental/shy/religious on me! — ¡no te me pongas sentimental/tímido/religioso! *, ¡no te hagas el sentimental/tímido/religioso conmigo!

    to go communist — [constituency, person] volverse comunista

    • to go mad — (lit, fig) volverse loco

    • to go to sleep — dormirse

    See:
    BECOME, GO, GET in become
    13) (=fit) caber

    4 into 12 goes 3 times — 12 entre cuatro son tres, 12 dividido entre cuatro son tres

    14) (=be accepted) valer

    • anything goes * — todo vale

    • that goes for me too — (=applies to me) eso va también por mí; (=I agree) yo también estoy de acuerdo

    say
    15) (=fail) [material] desgastarse; [chair, branch] romperse; [elastic] ceder; [fuse, light bulb] fundirse; [sight, strength] fallar

    • his health is going — su salud se está resintiendo

    • his hearing/ mind is going — está perdiendo el oído/la cabeza

    • his nerve was beginning to go — estaba empezando a perder la sangre fría

    • her sight is going — le está empezando a fallar la vista

    • my voice has gone — me he quedado afónico

    16) (=be kept) ir

    where does this book go? — ¿dónde va este libro?

    17) (=be available)

    is there any tea going? — (=is there any left?) ¿queda té?; (=will you get me one?) ¿me haces un té?

    18) (=get underway)

    whose turn is it to go? — (in game) ¿a quién le toca?, ¿quién va ahora?

    go! — (Sport) ¡ya!

    • all systems go — (Space) (also fig) todo listo

    - there you go again!
    19) (=be destined) [inheritance] pasar; [fund] destinarse

    • all his money goes on drink — se le va todo el dinero en alcohol

    • the inheritance went to his nephew — la herencia pasó a su sobrino

    • the money will go towards the holiday — el dinero será para las vacaciones

    20) (=sound) [doorbell, phone] sonar
    21) (=run)

    how does that song go? — [tune] ¿cómo va esa canción?; [words] ¿cómo es la letra de esa canción?

    the story goes that... — según dicen...

    22) (=do) hacer
    23) * (=go to the toilet) ir al baño

    • it's a fairly good garage as garages go — es un garaje bastante bueno, para como son normalmente los garajes

    he's not bad, as estate agents go — no es un mal agente inmobiliario, dentro de lo que cabe

    • let's get going! — (=be on our way) ¡vamos!, ¡vámonos!, ¡ándale! (Mex); (=start sth) ¡manos a la obra!, ¡adelante!

    to get going on or with sth — ponerse con algo

    I've got to get going on or with my tax — tengo que ponerme con los impuestos

    once he gets going... — una vez que se pone..., una vez que empieza...

    • to keep going — (=moving forward) seguir; (=enduring) resistir, aguantar; (=functioning) seguir funcionando

    to keep sb going: this medicine kept him going — esta medicina le daba fuerzas para seguir

    • to keep sth going, the workers are trying to keep the factory going — los trabajadores están intentando mantener la fábrica en funcionamiento or en marcha

    • to let sb go — (=release) soltar a algn; euph (=make redundant) despedir a algn

    let (me) go! — ¡suéltame!

    you're wrong, but we'll let it go — no llevas razón, pero vamos a dejarlo así

    to let o.s. go — (physically) dejarse, descuidarse; (=have fun) soltarse el pelo *

    • to let go of sth/sb — soltar algo/a algn

    far 1., 2)
    2. TRANSITIVE VERB
    1) (=travel) [+ route] hacer

    which route does the number 29 go? — ¿qué itinerario hace el 29?

    which way are you going? — ¿por dónde vais a ir?, ¿qué camino vais a tomar?

    we had only gone a few kilometres when... — solo llevábamos unos kilómetros cuando...

    to go it —

    distance 1., 1)
    2) (=make) hacer

    the car went "bang!" — el coche hizo "bang"

    3) * (=say) soltar *

    "shut up!" he goes — -¡cállate! -suelta

    he goes to me, "what do you want?" — va y me dice or me suelta: -¿qué quieres? *

    4) (Gambling) (=bet) apostar

    he went £50 on the red — apostó 50 libras al rojo

    I can only go £15 — solo puedo llegar a 15 libras

    5) *
    - go one better
    - go it alone
    3.
    MODAL VERB ir

    I'm going/I was going to do it — voy/iba a hacerlo

    to go doing sth

    don't go getting upset * — venga, no te enfades

    to go looking for sth/sb — ir a buscar algo/a algn

    4. NOUN
    1) (=turn)

    whose go is it? — ¿a quién le toca?

    2) (=attempt) intento m

    • to have a go (at doing sth) — probar (a hacer algo)

    shall I have a go? — ¿pruebo yo?, ¿lo intento yo?

    to have another go — probar otra vez, intentarlo otra vez

    • at or in one go — de un (solo) golpe

    3) * (=bout)

    they've had a rough go of it — lo han pasado mal, han pasado una mala racha

    4) * (=energy) empuje m, energía f

    • to be full of go — estar lleno de empuje or energía

    • there's no go about him — no tiene empuje or energía

    5) * (=success)

    • to make a go of sth — tener éxito en algo

    6)
    - have a go at sb

    on the go —

    5.
    ADJECTIVE
    (Space)

    all systems are go — (lit, fig) todo listo

    See:
    COME, GO in come
    * * *

    I
    1. [gəʊ]
    1) (3rd pers sing pres goes; past went; past p gone) intransitive verb
    2)
    a) (move, travel) ir*

    who goes there? — ( Mil) ¿quién va?

    are you going my way? — ¿vas hacia el mismo sitio que yo?

    where do we go from here? — ¿y ahora qué hacemos?

    b) (start moving, acting)

    go when the lights turn green — avanza or (fam) dale cuando el semáforo se ponga verde

    ready, (get) set, go! — preparados or en sus marcas, listos ya!

    there you go — (colloq) ( handing something over) toma or aquí tienes; ( something is ready) ya está or listo

    don't go telling everybody — (colloq) no vayas a contárselo a todo el mundo

    3) (past p gone/been)
    a) ( travel to) ir*

    where are you going? — ¿adónde vas?

    to go by car/bus/plane — ir* en coche/autobús/avión

    to go on foot/horseback — ir* a pie/a caballo

    to go for a walk/drive — ir* a dar un paseo/una vuelta en coche

    to go to + inf — ir* a + inf

    they've been to see the exhibition — han visitado la exposición, han estado en la exposición

    to go and + inf — ir* a + inf

    go and see what she wants — anda or vete a ver qué quiere

    b) ( attend) ir*

    to go on a training course — hacer* un curso de capacitación

    to go on a diet — ponerse* a régimen

    to go -ing — ir* a + inf

    to go swimming/hunting — ir* a nadar/cazar

    4) (attempt, make as if to)

    to go to + inf — ir* a + inf

    5) (leave, depart) \<\<visitor\>\> irse*, marcharse (esp Esp); \<\<bus/train\>\> salir*

    well, I must be going — bueno, me tengo que ir ya

    to leave go — soltar*; let II 1) c)

    6)
    a) ( pass) \<\<time\>\> pasar

    it's just gone nine o'clock — (BrE) son las nueve pasadas

    b) ( disappear) \<\<headache/fear\>\> pasarse or irse* (+ me/te/le etc); \<\<energy/confidence\>\> desaparecer*

    has the pain gone? — ¿se te (or le etc) ha pasado or ido el dolor?

    c) \<\<money/food\>\> ( be spent) irse*; ( be used up) acabarse

    what do you spend it all on? - I don't know, it just goes — ¿en qué te lo gastas? - no sé, se (me) va como el agua

    the money/cream has all gone — se ha acabado el dinero/la crema

    to go on something: half his salary goes on drink — la mitad del sueldo se le va en bebida

    7)

    that sofa will have to go — nos vamos (or se van etc) a tener que deshacer de ese sofá

    b) ( be sold) venderse

    the bread has all gone — no queda pan, el pan se ha vendido todo

    the painting went for £1,000 — el cuadro se vendió en 1.000 libras

    going, going, gone — a la una, a las dos, vendido

    8)
    a) (cease to function, wear out) \<\<bulb/fuse\>\> fundirse; \<\<thermostat/fan/exhaust\>\> estropearse

    her memory/eyesight is going — está fallándole or está perdiendo la memoria/la vista

    the brakes went as we... — los frenos fallaron cuando...

    b) ( die) (colloq) morir*
    a) ( remaining)

    I still have 50 pages to go — todavía me faltan or me quedan 50 páginas

    b) ( take away) (AmE)
    10)
    a) ( lead) \<\<path/road\>\> ir*, llevar
    b) (extend, range) \<\<road/railway line\>\> ir*

    it only goes as far as Croydon — sólo va or llega hasta Croydon

    to go from... to... — \<\<prices/ages/period\>\> ir* de... a... or desde... hasta...

    11)
    a) ( have place) ir*; ( fit) caber*; see also go in, go into

    5 into 11 won't o doesn't go — 11 no es divisible por 5

    12)
    a) ( become)

    to go blind/deaf — quedarse ciego/sordo

    to go crazy — volverse* loco

    to go mouldy — (BrE) enmohecerse*

    to go sour — agriarse, ponerse* agrio

    b) (be, remain)

    to go barefoot/naked — ir* or andar* descalzo/desnudo

    13) (turn out, proceed, progress) ir*

    how are things going? — ¿cómo van or andan las cosas?

    14)
    a) ( be available) (only in -ing form)

    is there any coffee going? — (BrE) ¿hay café?

    it's not expensive as dishwashers go — no es caro, para lo que cuestan los lavavajillas

    15)
    a) (function, work) \<\<heater/engine/clock\>\> funcionar

    to have a lot going for one — tener* muchos puntos a favor

    to have a good thing going: we've got a good thing going here — esto marcha muy bien

    b)

    to get going: the car's OK once it gets going el coche marcha bien una vez que arranca; I find it hard to get going in the mornings me cuesta mucho entrar en acción por la mañana; it's late, we'd better get going es tarde, más vale que nos vayamos; to get something going: we tried to get a fire going tratamos de hacer fuego; we need some music to get the party going hace falta un poco de música para animar la fiesta; to get somebody going: all this stupid nonsense really gets me going — estas estupideces me sacan de quicio

    c)

    to keep going — ( continue to function) aguantar; ( not stop) seguir*

    to keep a project going — mantener* a flote un proyecto

    16) (continue, last out) seguir*

    how long can you go before you need a break? — ¿cuánto aguantas sin descansar?

    we can go for weeks without seeing a soul — podemos estar or pasar semanas enteras sin ver un alma

    17)
    a) ( sound) \<\<bell/siren\>\> sonar*
    b) (make sound, movement) hacer*
    18)

    to go to + inf: everything that goes to make a good school todo lo que contribuye a que una escuela sea buena; that just goes to prove my point eso confirma lo que yo decía or prueba que tengo razón; it just goes to show: we can't leave them on their own — está visto que no los podemos dejar solos

    b) ( be used)

    to go toward something/to + inf: all their savings are going toward the trip van a gastar todos sus ahorros en el viaje; the money will go to pay the workmen — el dinero se usará para pagar a los obreros

    19) (run, be worded) \<\<poem/prayer\>\> decir*

    how does the song go? — ¿cómo es la (letra/música de la) canción?

    20)

    anything goes — todo vale, cualquier cosa está bien

    b) (be necessarily obeyed, believed)

    what the boss says goes — lo que dice el jefe, va a misa

    c) (match, suit) pegar*, ir*

    that shirt and that tie don't really go — esa camisa no pega or no va or no queda bien con esa corbata; see also go together, go with

    21) ( have turn) ( Games) ir*, jugar*

    2.
    vt ( say) (colloq) ir* y decir* (fam)

    that's enough of that, he goes — -ya está bueno -va y dice


    3.
    v aux (only in -ing form)
    to be going to + inf
    a) ( expressing intention) ir* a + inf

    I was just going to make some coffee — iba a or estaba por hacer café

    b) (expressing near future, prediction) ir* a + inf
    Phrasal Verbs:

    II
    noun (pl goes)
    1) c
    a) ( attempt)

    he emptied the bottle at o in one go — vació la botella de un tirón or de una sentada (fam)

    go at something/-ing: it's my first go at writing for radio es la primera vez que escribo para la radio; I want to have a go at learning Arabic quiero intentar aprender árabe; have a go prueba a ver, inténtalo; I've had a good go at the kitchen le he dado una buena pasada or un buen repaso a la cocina; it's no go es imposible; to give something a go (BrE) intentar algo; to have a go at somebody (colloq): she had a go at me for not having told her se la agarró conmigo por no habérselo dicho (fam); to make a go of something — sacar* algo adelante

    b) ( turn)

    whose go is it? — ¿a quién le toca?

    can I have a go on your typewriter? — ¿me dejas probar tu máquina de escribir?

    2) u (energy, drive) empuje m, dinamismo m

    (to be) on the go: I've been on the go all morning no he parado en toda la mañana; he's got three jobs on the go — (BrE) está haciendo tres trabajos a la vez


    III
    adjective (pred)

    all systems go — todo listo or luz verde para despegar

    English-spanish dictionary > go

  • 11 Housing

       In a country with a chronic housing shortage, it is ironic that Portugal has preserved and restored one of Europe's finest collections of historic castles and palaces. For decades, well before the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal has endured a shortage of decent, affordable housing, whether rented or purchased, as well as the growth of sprawling urban shantytowns outside Lisbon, Oporto, and smaller towns such as Estoril. Known as bairros da lata, literally, "neighborhoods or boroughs of tin," these poorly constructed dwellings lack electricity, water, or sewage systems. The flimsy buildings are made of any kind of building materials, including sheets of galvanized tin that serve as roofs, walls, and doors. As of the early 1980s, it was estimated that there were at least 700,000 illegally constructed buildings in Portugal, some 200,000 of which were in the greater Lisbon area, an example of the worst kind of urban sprawl. Many of these structures were built on unused private lands or on public lands.
       Even after Portugal's economy began to benefit from membership in the European Economic Community (EEC; later the European Union), a significant portion of housing remained substandard, whether in rural or urban areas. By the early 1990s, electrification in rural areas was still not complete, and running water and sewage systems were lacking. As of the early 21st century, improvement in housing has occurred, but with population growth and the arrival of migrants from Europe, Brazil, and former colonies in Africa, the basic components of a housing crisis persist: shortage of decent rental or purchased housings; persistent urban shantytowns, which in some areas have expanded; and substandard living conditions.
       A majority of the Portuguese people (60 percent; and in Lisbon and Oporto, 80 percent) rent their housing. Improving or expanding such rental housing has been challenging in part because of rigid recent control laws that, between 1948 and 1985, tended to discourage either the maintenance and improvement or the construction of apartments. In suburbs outside Lisbon, large apartment houses were built after 1980 for the more prosperous new urbanites, but, as in the past, the supply of good, affordable housing lagged behind demand. Many Portuguese governments confronted and engaged the housing problem, and some excellent reforms were instituted. The contemporary housing crisis nevertheless persists and, after 2007, was complicated by the worldwide economic crisis.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Housing

  • 12 Intelligence

       There is no mystery about it: the child who is familiar with books, ideas, conversation-the ways and means of the intellectual life-before he begins school, indeed, before he begins consciously to think, has a marked advantage. He is at home in the House of intellect just as the stableboy is at home among horses, or the child of actors on the stage. (Barzun, 1959, p. 142)
       It is... no exaggeration to say that sensory-motor intelligence is limited to desiring success or practical adaptation, whereas the function of verbal or conceptual thought is to know and state truth. (Piaget, 1954, p. 359)
       ntelligence has two parts, which we shall call the epistemological and the heuristic. The epistemological part is the representation of the world in such a form that the solution of problems follows from the facts expressed in the representation. The heuristic part is the mechanism that on the basis of the information solves the problem and decides what to do. (McCarthy & Hayes, 1969, p. 466)
       Many scientists implicitly assume that, among all animals, the behavior and intelligence of nonhuman primates are most like our own. Nonhuman primates have relatively larger brains and proportionally more neocortex than other species... and it now seems likely that humans, chimpanzees, and gorillas shared a common ancestor as recently as 5 to 7 million years ago.... This assumption about the unique status of primate intelligence is, however, just that: an assumption. The relations between intelligence and measures of brain size is poorly understood, and evolutionary affinity does not always ensure behavioral similarity. Moreover, the view that nonhuman primates are the animals most like ourselves coexists uneasily in our minds with the equally pervasive view that primates differ fundamentally from us because they lack language; lacking language, they also lack many of the capacities necessary for reasoning and abstract thought. (Cheney & Seyfarth, 1990, p. 4)
       Few constructs are asked to serve as many functions in psychology as is the construct of human intelligence.... Consider four of the main functions addressed in theory and research on intelligence, and how they differ from one another.
       1. Biological. This type of account looks at biological processes. To qualify as a useful biological construct, intelligence should be a biochemical or biophysical process or at least somehow a resultant of biochemical or biophysical processes.
       2. Cognitive approaches. This type of account looks at molar cognitive representations and processes. To qualify as a useful mental construct, intelligence should be specifiable as a set of mental representations and processes that are identifiable through experimental, mathematical, or computational means.
       3. Contextual approaches. To qualify as a useful contextual construct, intelligence should be a source of individual differences in accomplishments in "real-world" performances. It is not enough just to account for performance in the laboratory. On [sic] the contextual view, what a person does in the lab may not even remotely resemble what the person would do outside it. Moreover, different cultures may have different conceptions of intelligence, which affect what would count as intelligent in one cultural context versus another.
       4. Systems approaches. Systems approaches attempt to understand intelligence through the interaction of cognition with context. They attempt to establish a link between the two levels of analysis, and to analyze what forms this link takes. (Sternberg, 1994, pp. 263-264)
       High but not the highest intelligence, combined with the greatest degrees of persistence, will achieve greater eminence than the highest degree of intelligence with somewhat less persistence. (Cox, 1926, p. 187)
       There are no definitive criteria of intelligence, just as there are none for chairness; it is a fuzzy-edged concept to which many features are relevant. Two people may both be quite intelligent and yet have very few traits in common-they resemble the prototype along different dimensions.... [Intelligence] is a resemblance between two individuals, one real and the other prototypical. (Neisser, 1979, p. 185)
       Given the complementary strengths and weaknesses of the differential and information-processing approaches, it should be possible, at least in theory, to synthesise an approach that would capitalise upon the strength of each approach, and thereby share the weakness of neither. (Sternberg, 1977, p. 65)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Intelligence

  • 13 Shannon, Claude Elwood

    [br]
    b. 30 April 1916 Gaylord, Michigan, USA
    [br]
    American mathematician, creator of information theory.
    [br]
    As a child, Shannon tinkered with radio kits and enjoyed solving puzzles, particularly crypto-graphic ones. He graduated from the University of Michigan in 1936 with a Bachelor of Science in mathematics and electrical engineering, and earned his Master's degree from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1937. His thesis on applying Boolean algebra to switching circuits has since been acclaimed as possibly the most significant this century. Shannon earned his PhD in mathematics from MIT in 1940 with a dissertation on the mathematics of genetic transmission.
    Shannon spent a year at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, then in 1941 joined Bell Telephone Laboratories, where he began studying the relative efficiency of alternative transmission systems. Work on digital encryption systems during the Second World War led him to think that just as ciphers hide information from the enemy, "encoding" information could also protect it from noise. About 1948, he decided that the amount of information was best expressed quantitatively in a two-value number system, using only the digits 0 and 1. John Tukey, a Princeton colleague, named these units "binary digits" (or, for short, "bits"). Almost all digital computers and communications systems use such on-off, or two-state logic as their basis of operation.
    Also in the 1940s, building on the work of H. Nyquist and R.V.L. Hartley, Shannon proved that there was an upper limit to the amount of information that could be transmitted through a communications channel in a unit of time, which could be approached but never reached because real transmissions are subject to interference (noise). This was the beginning of information theory, which has been used by others in attempts to quantify many sciences and technologies, as well as subjects in the humanities, but with mixed results. Before 1970, when integrated circuits were developed, Shannon's theory was not the preferred circuit-and-transmission design tool it has since become.
    Shannon was also a pioneer in the field of artificial intelligence, claiming that computing machines could be used to manipulate symbols as well as do calculations. His 1953 paper on computers and automata proposed that digital computers were capable of tasks then thought exclusively the province of living organisms. In 1956 he left Bell Laboratories to join the MIT faculty as Professor of Communications Science.
    On the lighter side, Shannon has built many devices that play games, and in particular has made a scientific study of juggling.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    National Medal of Science. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Medal of Honor, Kyoto Prize.
    Bibliography
    His seminal paper (on what has subsequently become known as information theory) was entitled "The mathematical theory of communications", first published in Bell System Technical Journal in 1948; it is also available in a monograph (written with Warren Weaver) published by the University of Illinois Press in 1949, and in Key Papers in the Development of Information Theory, ed. David Slepian, IEEE Press, 1974, 1988. For readers who want all of Shannon's works, see N.J.A.Sloane and A.D.Wyner, 1992, The
    Collected Papers of Claude E.Shannon.
    HO

    Biographical history of technology > Shannon, Claude Elwood

  • 14 go

    I [gəu] 1. гл.; прош. вр. went, прич. прош. вр. gone
    1)
    а) идти, ехать, двигаться

    We are going too fast. — Мы идём слишком быстро.

    Who goes? Stand, or I fire. — Стой, кто идёт? Стрелять буду.

    The baby went behind his mother to play a hiding game. — Малыш решил поиграть в прятки и спрятался за маму.

    Go ahead, what are you waiting for? — Идите вперёд, чего вы ждёте?

    I'll go ahead and warn the others to expect you later. — Я пойду вперёд и предупрежу остальных, что вы подойдёте позже.

    My brother quickly passing him, went ahead, and won the match easily. — Мой брат быстро обогнал его, вышел вперёд и легко выиграл матч.

    As the roads were so icy, the cars were going along very slowly and carefully. — Так как дороги были покрыты льдом, машины продвигались очень медленно и осторожно.

    The deer has gone beyond the trees; I can't shoot at it from this distance. — Олень зашёл за деревья; я не могу попасть в него с этого расстояния.

    You've missed the bus, it just went by. — Ты опоздал на автобус, он только что проехал.

    Let's go forward to the front of the hall. — Давай продвинемся к началу зала.

    I have to go in now, my mother's calling me for tea. — Мне надо идти, мама зовёт меня пить чай.

    The car went into a tree and was severely damaged. — Машина влетела в дерево и была сильно повреждена.

    The police examined the cars and then allowed them to go on. — Полицейские осмотрели машины, а потом пропустили их.

    I don't think you should go out with that bad cold. — Я думаю, с такой простудой тебе лучше сидеть дома.

    It's dangerous here, with bullets going over our heads all the time. — Здесь опасно, пули так и свистят над головами.

    I fear that you cannot go over to the cottage. — Боюсь, что ты не сможешь сходить в этот коттедж.

    I spent a day or two on going round and seeing the other colleges. — Я провёл день или два, обходя другие колледжи.

    This material is so stiff that even my thickest needle won't go through. — Этот материал настолько плотный, что даже моя самая большая игла не может проткнуть его.

    Don't leave me alone, let me go with you! — Не бросай меня, позволь мне пойти с тобой!

    The piano won't go through this narrow entrance. — Фортепиано не пройдёт сквозь этот узкий вход.

    There is no such thing as a level street in the city: those which do not go up, go down. — В городе нет такого понятия как ровная улица: те, которые не идут вверх, спускаются вниз.

    to go on travels, to go on a journey, to go on a voyage — отправиться в путешествие

    He wants me to go on a cruise with him. — Он хочет, чтобы я отправился с ним в круиз.

    в) уходить, уезжать

    Please go now, I'm getting tired. — Теперь, пожалуйста, уходи, я устал.

    I have to go at 5.30. — Я должен уйти в 5.30.

    There was no answer to my knock, so I went away. — На мой стук никто не ответил, так что я ушёл.

    Why did the painter leave his family and go off to live on a tropical island? — Почему художник бросил свою семью и уехал жить на остров в тропиках?

    At the end of this scene, the murderer goes off, hearing the police arrive. — В конце сцены убийца уходит, заслышав приближение полиции.

    Syn:
    г) пойти (куда-л.), уехать (куда-л.) с определённой целью

    to go to bed — идти, отправляться, ложиться спать

    to go to press — идти в печать, печататься

    You'd better go for the police. — Ты лучше сбегай за полицией.

    д) заниматься (чем-л.); двигаться определённым образом (что-л. делая)

    The bus goes right to the centre of town. — Автобус ходит прямо до центра города.

    The ship goes between the two islands. — Корабль курсирует между двумя островами.

    ж) разг. двигаться определённым образом, идти определённым шагом

    to go above one's ground — идти, высоко поднимая ноги

    2)
    а) следовать определённым курсом, идти (каким-л. путем) прям. и перен.

    the man who goes straight in spite of temptation — человек, который идёт не сбиваясь с пути, несмотря на соблазны

    She will never go my way, nor, I fear, shall I ever go hers. — Она никогда не будет действовать так, как я, и, боюсь, я никогда не буду действовать так, как она.

    б) прибегать (к чему-л.), обращаться (к кому-л.)
    3) ходить (куда-л.) регулярно, с какой-л. целью

    When I was young, we went to church every Sunday. — Когда я был маленьким, мы каждое воскресенье ходили в церковь.

    4)
    а) идти (от чего-л.), вести (куда-л.)

    The boundary here goes parallel with the river. — Граница идёт здесь вдоль реки.

    б) выходить (куда-л.)

    This door goes outside. — Эта дверь выходит наружу.

    5) происходить, случаться, развиваться, проистекать

    The annual dinner never goes better than when he is in the chair. — Ежегодный обед проходит лучше всего, когда он председательствует.

    The game went so strangely that I couldn't possibly tell. — Игра шла так странно, что и не рассказать.

    The election went against him. — Выборы кончились для него неудачно.

    What has gone of...? — Что стало, что произошло с...?

    Nobody in Porlock ever knew what has gone with him. — Никто в Порлоке так и не узнал, что с ним стало.

    6)

    The battery in this watch is going. — Батарейка в часах садится.

    Sometimes the eyesight goes forever. — Иногда зрение теряют навсегда.

    I could feel my brain going. — Я чувствовал, что мой ум перестаёт работать.

    You see that your father is going very fast. — Вы видите, что ваш отец очень быстро сдаёт.

    б) ломаться; изнашиваться ( до дыр)

    The platform went. — Трибуна обрушилась.

    About half past three the foremast went in three places. — Около половины четвёртого фок-мачта треснула в трёх местах.

    The dike might go any minute. — Дамбу может прорвать в любую минуту.

    My old sweater had started to go at the elbows. — Мой старый свитер начал протираться на локтях.

    Syn:
    в) быть поражённым болезнью, гнить (о растениях, урожае)

    The crop is good, but the potato is going everywhere. — Урожай зерновых хорош, а картофель начинает повсюду гнить.

    7) разг. умирать, уходить из жизни

    to go to one's own place — умереть, скончаться

    to go aloft / off the hooks / off the stocks / to (the) pot разг. — отправиться на небеса, протянуть ноги, сыграть в ящик

    Your brother's gone - died half-an-hour ago. — Ваш брат покинул этот мир - скончался полчаса назад.

    Hope he hasn't gone down; he deserved to live. — Надеюсь, что он не умер; он заслужил того, чтобы жить.

    The doctors told me that he might go off any day. — Доктора сказали мне, что он может скончаться со дня на день.

    I hope that when I go out I shall leave a better world behind me. — Надеюсь, что мир станет лучше, когда меня не будет.

    8)
    а) вмещаться, подходить (по форме, размеру)

    The space is too small, the bookcase won't go in. — Здесь слишком мало места, книжный шкаф сюда не войдёт.

    Elzevirs go readily into the pocket. — Средневековые книги-эльзевиры легко входят в карман.

    The thread is too thick to go into the needle. — Эта нитка слишком толста, чтобы пролезть в игольное ушко.

    Three goes into fifteen five times. — Три содержится в пятнадцати пять раз.

    All the good we can find about him will go into a very few words. — Всё хорошее, что мы в нём можем найти, можно выразить в нескольких словах.

    б) соответствовать, подходить (по стилю, цвету, вкусу)

    This furniture would go well in any room. — Эта мебель подойдёт для любой комнаты.

    I don't think these colours really go, do you? — Я не думаю, что эти цвета подходят, а ты как думаешь?

    Oranges go surprisingly well with duck. — Апельсины отлично подходят к утке.

    That green hat doesn't go with the blue dress. — Эта зелёная шляпа не идёт к синему платью.

    в) помещаться (где-л.), постоянно храниться (где-л.)

    This box goes on the third shelf from the top. — Эта коробка стоит на третьей полке сверху.

    This book goes here. — Эта книга стоит здесь (здесь её место).

    He's short, as jockeys go. — Он довольно низкого роста, даже для жокея.

    "How goes it, Joe?" - "Pretty well, as times go." — "Как дела, Джо?" - "По нынешним временам вполне сносно".

    10) быть посланным, отправленным (о письме, записке)

    I'd like this letter to go first class. — Я хотел бы отправить это письмо первым классом.

    11) проходить, пролетать ( о времени)

    This week's gone so fast - I can't believe it's Friday already. — Эта неделя прошла так быстро, не могу поверить, что уже пятница.

    Time goes so fast when you're having fun. — Когда нам весело, время бежит.

    Summer is going. — Лето проходит.

    One week and half of another is already gone. — Уже прошло полторы недели.

    12)
    а) пойти (на что-л.), быть потраченным (на что-л.; о деньгах)

    Whatever money he got it all went on paying his debt. — Сколько бы денег он ни получил, всё уходило на выплату долга.

    Your money went towards a new computer for the school. — Ваши деньги пошли на новый компьютер для школы.

    Not more than a quarter of your income should go in rent. — На арендную плату должно уходить не более четверти дохода.

    б) уменьшаться, кончаться (о запасах, провизии)

    We were worried because the food was completely gone and the water was going fast. — Мы беспокоились, так как еда уже кончилась, а вода подходила к концу.

    The cake went fast. — Пирог был тут же съеден.

    All its independence was gone. — Вся его независимость исчезла.

    One of the results of using those drugs is that the will entirely goes. — Одно из последствий приёма этих лекарств - полная потеря воли.

    This feeling gradually goes off. — Это чувство постепенно исчезает.

    They can fire me, but I won't go quietly. — Они могут меня уволить, но я не уйду тихо.

    14)
    а) издавать (какой-л.) звук

    to go bang — бахнуть, хлопнуть

    to go crash / smash — грохнуть, треснуть

    Clatter, clatter, went the horses' hoofs. — Цок, цок, цокали лошадиные копыта.

    Something seemed to go snap within me. — Что-то внутри меня щёлкнуло.

    Crack went the mast. — Раздался треск мачты.

    Patter, patter, goes the rain. — Кап, кап, стучит дождь.

    The clock on the mantelpiece went eight. — Часы на камине пробили восемь.

    15)
    а) иметь хождение, быть в обращении ( о деньгах)
    б) циркулировать, передаваться, переходить из уст в уста

    Now the story goes that the young Smith is in London. — Говорят, что юный Смит сейчас в Лондоне.

    16)

    My only order was, "Clear the road - and be damn quick about it." What I said went. — Я отдал приказ: "Очистить дорогу - и, чёрт возьми, немедленно!" Это тут же было выполнено.

    He makes so much money that whatever he says, goes. — У него столько денег, что всё, что он ни скажет, тут же выполняется.

    - from the word Go

    anything goes, everything goes разг. — всё дозволено, всё сойдёт

    Around here, anything goes. — Здесь всё разрешено.

    Anything goes if it's done by someone you're fond of. — Всё сойдёт, если это всё сделано тем, кого ты любишь.

    в) ( go about) начинать (что-л.; делать что-л.), приступать к (чему-л.)

    She went about her work in a cold, impassive way. — Холодно, бесстрастно она приступила к своей работе.

    The church clock has not gone for twenty years. — Часы на церкви не ходили двадцать лет.

    All systems go. — Всё работает нормально.

    She felt her heart go in a most unusual manner. — Она почувствовала, что сердце у неё очень странно бьётся.

    Syn:
    18) продаваться, расходиться (по какой-л. цене)

    to go for a song — идти за бесценок, ничего не стоить

    There were perfectly good coats going at $23! —Там продавали вполне приличные куртки всего за 23 доллара.

    Going at four pounds fifteen, if there is no advance. — Если больше нет предложений, то продаётся за четыре фунта пятнадцать шиллингов.

    This goes for 1 shilling. — Это стоит 1 шиллинг.

    The house went for very little. — Дом был продан за бесценок.

    19) позволить себе, согласиться (на какую-л. сумму)

    Lewis consented to go as high as twenty-five thousand crowns. — Льюис согласился на такую большую сумму как двадцать пять тысяч крон.

    I'll go fifty dollars for a ticket. — Я позволю себе купить билет за пятьдесят долларов.

    20) разг. говорить
    21) эвф. сходить, сбегать ( в туалет)

    He's in the men's room. He's been wanting to go all evening, but as long as you were playing he didn't want to miss a note. (J. Wain) — Он в туалете. Ему туда нужно было весь вечер, но пока вы играли, он не хотел пропустить ни одной нотки.

    22) ( go after)
    а) следовать за (кем-л.); преследовать

    Half the guards went after the escaped prisoners, but they got away free. — На поиски беглецов отправилась половина гарнизона, но они всё равно сумели скрыться.

    б) преследовать цель; стремиться, стараться (сделать что-л.)

    Jim intends to go after the big prize. — Джим намерен выиграть большой приз.

    I think we should go after increased production this year. — Думаю, в этом году нам надо стремиться увеличить производство.

    в) посещать в качестве поклонника, ученика или последователя
    23) ( go against)
    а) противоречить, быть против (убеждений, желаний); идти вразрез с (чем-л.)

    to go against the grain, go against the hair — вызывать внутренний протест, быть не по нутру

    I wouldn't advise you to go against the director. — Не советую тебе перечить директору.

    It goes against my nature to get up early in the morning. — Рано вставать по утрам противно моей натуре.

    The run of luck went against Mr. Nickleby. (Ch. Dickens) — Удача отвернулась от мистера Никльби.

    Syn:
    б) быть не в пользу (кого-л.), закончиться неблагоприятно для (кого-л.; о соревнованиях, выборах)

    One of his many law-suits seemed likely to go against him. — Он, судя по всему, проигрывал один из своих многочисленных судебных процессов.

    If the election goes against the government, who will lead the country? — Если на выборах проголосуют против правительства, кто же возглавит страну?

    24) ( go at) разг.
    а) бросаться на (кого-л.)

    Our dog went at the postman again this morning. — Наша собака опять сегодня набросилась на почтальона.

    Selina went at her again for further information. — Селина снова набросилась на неё, требуя дополнительной информации.

    The students are really going at their studies now that the examinations are near. — Экзамены близко, так что студенты в самом деле взялись за учёбу.

    25) ( go before)
    а) представать перед (чем-л.), явиться лицом к лицу с (чем-л.)

    When you go before the judge, you must speak the exact truth. — Когда ты выступаешь в суде, ты должен говорить чистую правду.

    б) предлагать (что-л.) на рассмотрение

    Your suggestion goes before the board of directors next week. — Совет директоров рассмотрит ваше предложение на следующей неделе.

    Syn:
    26) ( go behind) не ограничиваться (чем-л.)
    27) ( go between) быть посредником между (кем-л.)

    The little girl was given a bar of chocolate as her payment for going between her sister and her sister's boyfriend. — Младшая сестра получила шоколадку за то, что была посыльной между своей старшей сестрой и её парнем.

    28) ( go beyond)
    а) превышать, превосходить (что-л.)

    The money that I won went beyond my fondest hopes. — Сумма, которую я выиграл, превосходила все мои ожидания.

    Be careful not to go beyond your rights. — Будь осторожен, не превышай своих прав.

    б) оказаться трудным, непостижимым (для кого-л.)

    I was interested to hear the speaker, but his speech went beyond me. — Мне было интересно послушать докладчика, но его речь была выше моего понимания.

    I don't think this class will be able to go beyond lesson six. — Не думаю, что этот класс сможет продвинуться дальше шестого урока.

    •
    - go beyond caring
    - go beyond endurance
    - go beyond a joke
    29) (go by / under) называться

    to go by / under the name of — быть известным под именем

    Our friend William often goes by Billy. — Нашего друга Вильяма часто называют Билли.

    He went under the name of Baker, to avoid discovery by the police. — Скрываясь от полиции, он жил под именем Бейкера.

    30) ( go by) судить по (чему-л.); руководствоваться (чем-л.), действовать в соответствии с (чем-л.)

    to go by the book разг. — действовать в соответствии с правилами, педантично выполнять правила

    You can't go by what he says, he's very untrustworthy. — Не стоит судить о ситуации по его словам, ему нельзя верить.

    You make a mistake if you go by appearances. — Ты ошибаешься, если судишь о людях по внешнему виду.

    I go by the barometer. — Я пользуюсь барометром.

    Our chairman always goes by the rules. — Наш председатель всегда действует по правилам.

    31) ( go for)
    а) стремиться к (чему-л.)

    I think we should go for increased production this year. — Думаю, в этом году нам надо стремиться увеличить производительность.

    б) выбирать; любить, нравиться

    The people will never go for that guff. — Людям не понравится эта пустая болтовня.

    She doesn't go for whiskers. — Ей не нравятся бакенбарды.

    в) разг. наброситься, обрушиться на (кого-л.)

    The black cow immediately went for him. — Чёрная корова немедленно кинулась на него.

    The speaker went for the profiteers. — Оратор обрушился на спекулянтов.

    г) становиться (кем-л.), действовать в качестве (кого-л.)

    I'm well made all right. I could go for a model if I wanted. — У меня отличная фигура. Я могла бы стать манекенщицей, если бы захотела.

    д) быть принятым за (кого-л.), считаться (кем-л.), сходить за (кого-л.)

    He goes for a lawyer, but I don't think he ever studied or practised law. — Говорят, он адвокат, но мне кажется, что он никогда не изучал юриспруденцию и не работал в этой области.

    е) быть действительным по отношению к (кому-л. / чему-л.), относиться к (кому-л. / чему-л.)

    that goes for me — это относится ко мне; это мое дело

    I don't care if Pittsburgh chokes. And that goes for Cincinnati, too. (P. G. Wodehouse) — Мне всё равно, если Питсбург задохнётся. То же самое касается Цинциннати.

    •
    - go for broke
    - go for a burton
    32) ( go into)
    а) входить, вступать; принимать участие

    He wanted to go into Parliament. — Он хотел стать членом парламента.

    He went eagerly into the compact. — Он охотно принял участие в сделке.

    The Times has gone into open opposition to the Government on all points except foreign policy. — “Таймс” встал в открытую оппозицию к правительству по всем вопросам, кроме внешней политики.

    Syn:
    take part, undertake
    б) впадать ( в истерику); приходить ( в ярость)

    the man who went into ecstasies at discovering that Cape Breton was an island — человек, который впал в экстаз, обнаружив, что мыс Бретон является островом

    I nearly went into hysterics. — Я был на грани истерики.

    в) начинать заниматься (чем-л. в качестве профессии, должности, занятия)

    He went keenly into dairying. — Он активно занялся производством молочных продуктов.

    He went into practice for himself. — Он самостоятельно занялся практикой.

    Hicks naturally went into law. — Хикс, естественно, занялся правом.

    г) носить (о стиле в одежде; особенно носить траур)

    to go into long dresses, trousers, etc. — носить длинные платья, брюки

    She shocked Mrs. Spark by refusing to go into full mourning. — Она шокировала миссис Спарк, отказываясь носить полный траур.

    д) расследовать, тщательно рассматривать, изучать

    We cannot of course go into the history of these wars. — Естественно, мы не можем во всех подробностях рассмотреть историю этих войн.

    •
    - go into details
    - go into detail
    - go into abeyance
    - go into action
    33) ( go off) разлюбить (что-л.), потерять интерес к (чему-л.)

    I simply don't feel anything for him any more. In fact, I've gone off him. — Я просто не испытываю больше к нему никаких чувств. По существу, я его разлюбила.

    34) ( go over)
    а) перечитывать; повторять

    The schoolboy goes over his lesson, before going up before the master. — Ученик повторяет свой урок, прежде чем отвечать учителю.

    He went over the explanation two or three times. — Он повторил объяснение два или три раза.

    Syn:
    б) внимательно изучать, тщательно рассматривать; проводить осмотр

    We went over the house thoroughly before buying it. — Мы тщательно осмотрели дом, прежде чем купить его.

    I've asked the garage people to go over my car thoroughly. — Я попросил людей в сервисе тщательно осмотреть машину.

    Harry and I have been going over old letters. — Гарри и я просматривали старые письма.

    We must go over the account books together. — Нам надо вместе проглядеть бухгалтерские книги.

    35) ( go through)

    It would take far too long to go through all the propositions. — Изучение всех предложений займёт слишком много времени.

    б) пережить, перенести (что-л.)

    All that men go through may be absolutely the best for them. — Все испытания, которым подвергается человек, могут оказаться для него благом.

    Syn:
    в) проходить (какие-л. этапы)

    The disease went through the whole city. — Болезнь распространилась по всему городу.

    д) осматривать, обыскивать

    The girls were "going through" a drunken sailor. — Девицы обшаривали пьяного моряка.

    е) износить до дыр (об одежде, обуви)
    ж) поглощать, расходовать (что-л.)
    36) ( go to)
    а) обращаться к (кому-л. / чему-л.)

    She need not go to others for her bons mots. — Ей нет нужды искать у других остроумные словечки.

    б) переходить к (кому-л.) в собственность, доставаться (кому-л.)

    The house went to the elder son. — Дом достался старшему сыну.

    The money I had saved went to the doctors. — Деньги, которые я скопил, пошли на докторов.

    The dukedom went to his brother. — Титул герцога перешёл к его брату.

    And the Oscar goes to… — Итак, «Оскар» достаётся…

    в) быть составной частью (чего-л.); вести к (какому-л. результату)

    These are the bones which go to form the head and trunk. — Это кости, которые формируют череп и скелет.

    Whole gardens of roses go to one drop of the attar. — Для того, чтобы получить одну каплю розового масла, нужны целые сады роз.

    This only goes to prove the point. — Это только доказывает утверждение.

    г) составлять, равняться (чему-л.)

    Sixteen ounces go to the pound. — Шестнадцать унций составляют один фунт.

    How many go to a crew with you, captain? — Из скольких человек состоит ваша команда, капитан?

    д) брать на себя (расходы, труд)

    Don't go to any trouble. — Не беспокойтесь.

    Few publishers go to the trouble of giving the number of copies for an edition. — Немногие издатели берут на себя труд указать количество экземпляров издания.

    The tenant went to very needless expense. — Арендатор пошёл на абсолютно ненужные расходы.

    37) ( go under) относиться (к какой-л. группе, классу)

    This word goes under G. — Это слово помещено под G.

    38) ( go with)
    а) быть заодно с (кем-л.), быть на чьей-л. стороне

    My sympathies went strongly with the lady. — Все мои симпатии были полностью на стороне леди.

    б) сопутствовать (чему-л.), идти, происходить вместе с (чем-л.)

    Criminality habitually went with dirtiness. — Преступность и грязь обычно шли бок о бок.

    Syn:
    в) понимать, следить с пониманием за (речью, мыслью)

    The Court declared the deed a nullity on the ground that the mind of the mortgagee did not go with the deed she signed. — Суд признал документ недействительным на том основании, что кредитор по закладной не понимала содержания документа, который она подписала.

    г) разг. встречаться с (кем-л.), проводить время с (кем-л. - в качестве друга, подружки)

    The "young ladies" he had "gone with" and "had feelin's about" were now staid matrons. — "Молодые леди", с которыми он "дружил" и к которым он "питал чувства", стали солидными матронами.

    39) ( go upon)
    а) разг. использовать (что-л.) в качестве свидетельства или отправного пункта

    You see, this gave me something to go upon. — Видишь ли, это дало мне хоть что-то, с чего я могу начать.

    б) брать в свои руки; брать на себя ответственность

    I cannot bear to see things botched or gone upon with ignorance. — Я не могу видеть, как берутся за дела либо халтурно, либо ничего в них не понимая.

    40) (go + прил.)

    He went dead about three months ago. — Он умер около трех месяцев назад.

    She went pale. — Она побледнела.

    He went bankrupt. — Он обанкротился.

    Syn:
    б) продолжать (какое-л.) действие, продолжать пребывать в (каком-л.) состоянии

    We both love going barefoot on the beach. — Мы оба любим ходить босиком по пляжу.

    Most of their work seems to have gone unnoticed. — Кажется, большая часть их работы осталась незамеченной.

    The powers could not allow such an act of terrorism to go unpunished. — Власти не могут допустить, чтобы террористический акт прошёл безнаказанно.

    It seems as if it were going to rain. — Такое впечатление, что сейчас пойдёт дождь.

    Lambs are to be sold to those who are going to keep them. — Ягнята должны быть проданы тем, кто собирается их выращивать.

    42) (go and do smth.) разг. пойти и сделать что-л.

    The fool has gone and got married. — Этот дурак взял и женился.

    He might go and hang himself for all they cared. — Он может повеситься, им на это абсолютно наплевать.

    Oh, go and pick up pizza, for heaven's sake! — Ради бога, пойди купи, наконец, пиццу.

    •
    - go across
    - go ahead
    - go along
    - go away
    - go back
    - go before
    - go by
    - go down
    - go forth
    - go forward     - go together
    ••

    to go back a long way — давно знать друг друга, быть давними знакомыми

    to go short — испытывать недостаток в чём-л.; находиться в стеснённых обстоятельствах

    to go the way of nature / all the earth / all flesh / all living — скончаться, разделить участь всех смертных

    to let oneself go — дать волю себе, своим чувствам

    Go to Jericho / Bath / Hong Kong / Putney / Halifax! — Иди к чёрту! Убирайся!

    - go far
    - go bush
    - go ape
    - go amiss
    - go dry
    - go astray
    - go on instruments
    - go a long way
    - go postal
    - Go to!
    - Go to it!
    - let it go at that
    - go like blazes
    - go with the tide
    - go with the times
    - go along with you!
    - go easy
    - go up King Street
    - go figure
    - go it
    - go the extra mile
    - go to the wall     2. сущ.; разг.
    1) движение, хождение, ходьба; уст. походка

    He has been on the go since morning. — Он с утра на ногах.

    2)
    а) ретивость, горячность ( первоначально о лошадях); напористость, энергичность; бодрость, живость; рвение

    The job requires a man with a lot of go. — Для этой работы требуется очень энергичный человек.

    Physically, he is a wonderful man - very wiry, and full of energy and go. — Физически он превосходен - крепкий, полный энергии и напористости.

    Syn:
    б) энергичная деятельность; тяжелая, требующая напряжения работа

    Believe me, it's all go with these tycoons, mate. — Поверь мне, приятель, это все деятельность этих заправил.

    3) разг. происшествие; неожиданный поворот событий (то, которое вызывает затруднения)

    queer go, rum go — странное дело, странный поворот событий

    4)

    Let me have a go at fixing it. — Дай я попробую починить это.

    - have a go
    Syn:
    б) соревнование, борьба; состязание на приз ( в боксе)

    Cost me five dollars the other day to see the tamest kind of a go. There wasn't a knockdown in ten rounds. — На днях я потратил пять долларов, чтобы увидеть самое мирное состязание. За десять раундов не было ни одного нокдауна.

    в) приступ, припадок ( о болезни)
    5)
    а) количество чего-л., предоставляемое за один раз
    б) разг. бокал ( вина); порция ( еды)

    "The score!" he burst out. "Three goes o' rum!" (R. L. Stevenson, Treasure Island) — А деньги? - крикнул он. - За три кружки! (пер. Н. Чуковского)

    б) карт. "Мимо" (возглас игрока, объявляющего проход в криббидже)
    7) разг.
    а) успех, успешное дело
    б) соглашение, сделка
    ••

    all the go, quite the go — последний крик моды

    first go — первым делом, сразу же

    II [gɔ] сущ.; япон.
    го (настольная игра, в ходе которой двое участников по очереди выставляют на доску фишки-"камни", стремясь окружить "камни" противника своими и захватить как можно большую территорию)

    Англо-русский современный словарь > go

  • 15 go

    1. [gəʋ] n (pl goes [gəʋz]) разг.
    1. ход, ходьба; движение

    come and go - хождение туда и сюда /взад и вперёд/

    the boat rolled gently with the come and go of small waves - лодка мягко покачивалась на мелких волнах

    to be on the go - быть в движении /в работе/

    he is always on the go - он всегда в движении; он никогда не сидит без дела

    he has two books on the go at the moment - в настоящее время он работает (одновременно) над двумя книгами

    2. обстоятельство, положение; неожиданный поворот дел

    a near go - опасное /рискованное/ положение; ≅ быть на волосок от гибели /провала, разорения и т. п./

    here's a pretty go!, what a go! - ≅ весёленькая история!, хорошенькое дельце!

    it's a queer /rum/ go - странное дело

    3. попытка

    to have a go at - попытаться, рискнуть, попытать счастья

    she was staying for another go - она осталась, чтобы сделать ещё одну попытку

    let's have another go at this problem - давай ещё раз попробуем разобраться в этом деле

    he had several goes at the examination before he passed - он не смог сдать экзамен с первого захода

    4. 1) приступ
    2) порция ( еды или вина)
    3) что-л. выполненное за один раз
    5. сделка, соглашение

    it's a go! - идёт!, по рукам, решено!, договорились!

    6. разг. энергия, воодушевление; рвение; увлечение
    7. разг. успех; удача; успешное предприятие

    to make a go of it - амер. добиться успеха, преуспеть

    he is convinced that he can make a go of it - он уверен, что добьётся в этом деле успеха

    no go - бесполезный, безнадёжный

    it's no go! - не пойдёт!, невозможно!

    8. редк. походка
    9. ход ( в игре); бросок ( в спортивных играх)

    ♢ to give smb. the go - дать кому-л. сигнал или разрешение действовать; ≅ дать «добро»

    quite /all/ the go - последний крик моды; предмет всеобщего увлечения

    first go - первым делом, сразу же

    at a go - сразу, зараз

    the great [little] go - студ. последний [первый] экзамен на степень бакалавра гуманитарных наук ( в Кембридже и Оксфорде)

    he was a drag on me from the word go - с самого начала он был для меня обузой

    2. [gəʋ] a амер. разг.
    быть в состоянии готовности; работать (безотказно) (об аппаратуре и т. п.)

    you are go for landing - ≅ разрешается посадка

    she was suddenly in a go condition - она внезапно почувствовала, что готова ко всему

    3. [gəʋ] v (went; gone)
    I
    1. идти, ходить

    to go slowly [quickly] - идти медленно [быстро]

    to go slow - а) идти медленно, не торопиться; б) быть осмотрительным; [ср. тж. ♢ ]

    cars go on the road - по дороге едут /ездят/ машины

    to go upstairs [downstairs] - подыматься [спускаться] по лестнице

    they went over the river - они перешли /переправились через/ реку

    he went to visit /to see/ her - он пошёл навестить /проведать/ её

    to go in single file [in pairs] - идти по одному [парами]

    you go first - а) вы идите первым /вперёд/; б) проходите, пожалуйста; в) ваш первый ход

    2. направляться, следовать; ехать, поехать

    to go to the country - поехать за город /в деревню, на дачу/ [см. тж. ♢ ]

    to go abroad - поехать за границу [см. тж. ♢ ]

    to go to France [to London] - поехать во Францию [в Лондон]

    to go on a journey - поехать в путешествие; совершать путешествие

    to go for a ride /a drive/ - поехать /отправиться/ на прогулку (особ. верхом, на велосипеде, в автомобиле)

    to go on a visit - поехать /отправиться/ с визитом; поехать погостить

    to go to a party - пойти в гости /на вечеринку, на вечер/

    to go on a tour - а) отправиться /пуститься/ в путешествие; б) отправляться на гастроли /в турне/

    to go (some) places - амер. разг. ездить /ходить/ по разным местам

    3. 1) ездить, путешествовать, передвигаться (каким-л. способом)

    to go by land [by water] - ехать по суше [по воде]

    to go by train [by bus, by tram, by rail, by steamer] - ехать поездом [автобусом, трамваем, по железной дороге, пароходом]

    to go in a carriage [in a motor-car, in a ship, in a tram, in a trolley-bus] - ехать в экипаже [в автомобиле, на пароходе, в трамвае, в троллейбусе]

    to go on foot - ходить /идти/ пешком

    2) ходить, курсировать
    4. 1) уходить, уезжать

    we came at six and went at nine - мы пришли в шесть, а ушли в девять

    it is time for us to go - нам пора уходить /идти, уезжать/

    I'll be going now - ну, я пошёл

    I must be going now, I must be gone - теперь мне нужно уходить

    she is gone - она ушла /уехала/, её нет

    be gone!, get you gone! - уходи!

    2) отходить, отправляться

    when does the train go? - когда отходит поезд?

    the train goes from platform 5 - поезд отходит от платформы №5

    one, two, three - go!, ready, steady, go! - внимание... приготовиться... марш!

    5. 1) двигаться, быть в движении

    I'd prefer to sit the way the train is going - я бы предпочёл сидеть по ходу поезда

    to set smth. going - привести что-л. в движение

    2) двигаться с определённой скоростью

    the train was going (at) fifty miles an hour - поезд шёл со скоростью 50 миль в час

    to go at full drive /tilt/ - идти полным ходом

    6. 1) работать, действовать, функционировать (о машине и т. п.)

    my watch is going too fast [slow] - мои часы слишком спешат [отстают]

    the engine went beautifully all day - весь день машина работала превосходно

    how do I make the washing machine go? - как включить стиральную машину?

    2) жить, действовать, функционировать ( о человеке)

    he manages to keep going - он как-то тянет, ему удаётся держаться

    7. 1) тянуться, проходить, пролегать, простираться

    mountains that go from east to west - горы, тянущиеся /простирающиеся/ с востока на запад

    how far does the road go? - далеко ли тянется эта дорога?

    2) дотягиваться; доходить

    I want a rope that will go from the top window to the ground - мне нужна верёвка, которую можно опустить с верхнего этажа до земли

    8. 1) протекать, проходить

    time goes quickly - время идёт быстро /летит/

    vacation goes quickly - не успеваешь оглянуться, а отпуск кончился

    2) протекать; завершаться каким-л. образом

    how is the evening going? - как проходит вечер?

    how did the interview go? - как прошло интервью?

    I hope all goes well with you - надеюсь, что у вас всё хорошо

    how did the voting go? - как завершилось голосование?; каковы результаты голосования?

    nobody knows how matters will go - никто не знает, как пойдут дела

    what made the party go? - что обеспечило успех вечера?

    9. 1) исчезать; проходить
    2) исчезнуть, пропасть

    his hat has gone - у него исчезла /пропала/ шляпа

    where's my pen? It's gone (off my desk) - где моя ручка? Она исчезла (с моего стола)

    10. распространяться; передаваться
    11. передаваться (по телеграфу и т. п.)

    this message will go by mail /by post, in the post/ - это сообщение пойдёт по почте

    12. иметь хождение, быть в обращении
    13. (обыкн. to) идти (на что-л.); брать на себя (что-л.); решаться (на что-л.)

    to go to a lot of [great] trouble to do smth. - приложить много [массу] усилий, чтобы сделать что-л.

    he will not even go to the trouble of doing that - он не захочет даже и попытаться сделать это

    to go so far as to say that! - дойти до того, чтобы сказать это!

    14. 1) податься; рухнуть; сломаться, расколоться

    the platform went - трибуна рухнула /обрушилась/

    first the sail went and then the mast - сперва подался парус, а затем и мачта

    there goes another button! - ну вот, ещё одна пуговица отлетела!

    the fuse [bulb] went - перегорела пробка [лампочка]

    the engine in the old car finally went - мотор в старой машине окончательно пришёл в негодность

    2) потерпеть крах, обанкротиться
    3) отменяться, уничтожаться

    this clause of the bill will have to go - эта статья законопроекта должна быть отменена /не должна быть принята/

    whatever is not done yet must simply go - всё, что не сделано, придётся оставить как есть

    4) (обыкн. с must, can, have to) отказываться; избавляться

    the car must go, we can't afford it - от машины придётся отказаться, она нам не по карману

    15. 1) быть расположенным, следовать в определённом порядке
    2) храниться, находиться (где-л.); становиться ( на определённое место)

    where is this carpet to go? - куда постелить этот ковёр?

    3) (into, under) умещаться, укладываться (во что-л.)

    the thread is too thick to go into the needle - нитка слишком толстая, чтобы пролезть в иголку

    how many pints go into a gallon? - сколько пинт содержится в одном галлоне?

    4) (обыкн. to) равняться
    16. заканчиваться определённым результатом

    I don't know whether the case goes for me or against me - я не знаю ещё, удастся ли мне выиграть процесс

    which way will the decision go? - как всё решится?

    17. 1) гласить, говорить

    I don't exactly remember how the words go - я точно не помню, как это там сказано

    how does the story go? - что там дальше в рассказе?

    the story goes that he was murdered - говорят, что его убили

    2) звучать (о мелодии и т. п.)

    the tune goes something like this... - вот как, примерно, звучит этот мотив

    how does that song go? - напомните мне мотив этой песни

    ducks go❝quack❞ - утки делают «кряк-кряк»

    the guns went❝boom❞ - «бабах!» грохнули пушки [см. тж. III А 2, 4)]

    18. 1) звонить

    I hear the bells going - я слышу, как звонят колокола

    2) бить, отбивать время
    19. умирать, гибнуть

    she is gone - она погибла, она умерла

    my grandmother went peacefully in the night - моя бабушка тихо скончалась ночью

    after George went, she moved into a smaller house - когда Джордж умер, она переехала в дом поменьше

    he is dead and gone - разг. он уже в могиле

    20. 1) пройти, быть принятым
    2) быть приемлемым

    here anything goes - разг. здесь всё сойдёт; здесь ты можешь делать, что твоей душе угодно

    21. разг. выдерживать, терпеть
    22. справляться, одолевать
    23. ходить определённым шагом

    to go narrow [wide] - идти узким [широким] шагом ( о лошади)

    to go above the ground - уст. ходить, высоко подымая ноги

    24. спариваться
    II А
    1. 1) участвовать ( в доле)

    to go halves [shares, snacks, амер. fifty-fifty, уст. snips], to go share and share alike - делить поровну /пополам/; принять участие наравне (с кем-л.)

    2) амер. разг. ставить (какую-л. сумму); рисковать (какой-л. суммой)

    how much do you go? - а) сколько вы ставите?; б) на сколько вы спорите?

    2. 1) пропадать, слабеть (о слухе, сознании и т. п.)

    my voice has gone because of my cold - от простуды я потеряла голос /у меня сел голос/

    2) разг. износиться ( об одежде)
    3. редк.
    1) сохраняться ( о пище)

    butter goes better in the refrigerator - масло сохраняется лучше в холодильнике

    2) носиться (о ткани, одежде и т. п.)
    4. быть ритмичными ( о стихах)
    5. получать ( пособие)

    to go on the parish - получать приходское пособие по бедности, жить за счёт прихожан

    to go on the dole - получать пособие по бедности; перейти на пособие

    II Б
    1. to be going to do smth.
    1) собираться, намереваться сделать что-л.

    we were going to France but we changed our minds - мы хотели поехать во Францию, но передумали

    she is going to spend holidays at a rest-home - она решила провести свои каникулы в доме отдыха

    he is not going to be cheated - он не допустит, чтобы его обманули

    2) ожидаться (о каком-л. событии)

    I'm going to be sick! - меня сейчас вырвет!

    she felt she was going to be ill - она чувствовала, что заболевает

    2. to go and do smth. разг. взять да сделать что-л.; пойти и сделать что-л.

    to go and fetch smb., smth. - сходить за кем-л., чем-л.

    you've gone and torn my dress - ну вот, вы порвали мне платье

    there now! if I haven't gone and lost my ticket! - и надо же было мне потерять билет!

    3. to go about smth. /doing smth./
    1) заниматься чем-л.

    she went about her work with energy - она энергично занималась своими делами

    we must go about it carefully - а) это надо делать осторожно; б) за это надо браться осторожно

    2) приниматься за что-л.

    how does one go about getting seats? - что нужно делать, чтобы достать билеты /места/?

    he didn't know how to go about building a boat - он не знал, как подступиться к строительству лодки

    4. to go at smth. энергично взяться за что-л.

    let's go at this problem in a different way - давайте попробуем решить эту проблему по-другому

    he went at his breakfast as if he'd never eaten for a week - он набросился на завтрак так, будто не ел целую неделю

    5. to go at smb. набрасываться, бросаться на кого-л.
    6. to go against smth.
    1) двигаться против чего-л.

    to go against the tide - плыть против течения [см. тж. ♢ ]

    2) идти вразрез с чем-л., противоречить чему-л.

    she went against her mother's wishes - она не послушалась своей матери; она поступила наперекор своей матери

    3) юр. оспаривать что-л.; спорить против чего-л.
    7. to go against smb. быть против кого-л.; не подходить кому-л.

    it goes against me - это противно мне, это противоречит моим убеждениям

    8. to go behind smth. пересматривать, рассматривать заново, изучать (основания, данные)
    9. to go beyond smth. выходить за пределы чего-л., превышать что-л.
    10. to go by /on/ smth.
    1) судить по чему-л.
    2) руководствоваться чем-л., следовать чему-л.

    it is a good rule to go by - вот хорошее правило, которым следует руководствоваться

    I shall go entirely by what the doctor says - я буду делать всё, что говорит врач

    we were just going on what you yourself had said - мы как раз действовали в соответствии с тем, что вы сами говорили

    that's all the police had to go on to catch the killer - вот и все улики, которые были у полиции и по которым она должна была поймать убийцу

    11. to go after smth., smb. домогаться чего-л., кого-л.

    he is going after Jane - он ухаживает /бегает/ за Джейн

    12. to go for smb.
    1) разг. наброситься, обрушиться на кого-л.

    suddenly the lion went for his keeper - внезапно лев набросился на служителя

    my wife went for me because I was late for dinner - жена выругала меня за то, что я опоздал к обеду

    2) слыть кем-л.; быть принятым за кого-л.

    he went for an old man among the youth - молодёжь принимала его за старика /считала его стариком/

    3) разг. увлекаться кем-л.; влюбиться в кого-л.

    I don't go for men of his type - мне такие мужчины, как он, не нравятся

    13. to go for smth.
    1) разг. заменить что-л., сойти за что-л.

    this synthetic material may easily go for pure wool - эта искусственная ткань может легко сойти за чистую шерсть

    2) стремиться к чему-л.; добиваться чего-л.

    will you go for the prize? - ты будешь бороться за призовое место?

    when you offer him sweets he goes for the biggest one - когда ему предлагают конфеты, он всегда тянется за самой большой

    3) увлекаться чем-л.

    do you go for modern music? - вы любите современную музыку?

    14. to go for /at/ á certain sum of money продаваться по определённой цене

    to go for nothing - продаваться за бесценок [см. тж. II Б 15]

    the books went for a shilling [for so little] - книги были проданы за шиллинг [так дёшево]

    there were good coats going at £50 - по 50 фунтов продавали хорошие пальто

    going for £10!, going!, going!, gone! - продаётся за 10 фунтов!, 10 фунтов - раз!, 10 фунтов - два!, 10 фунтов - три! продано (за 10 фунтов)

    15. to go to /in/ smth. расходоваться, уходить на что-л.

    half our money goes on food and clothes for the children - половина наших денег уходит на еду и одежду для детей

    his time goes in watching television - он всё своё время тратит на телевизор

    to go for nothing - пропасть, уйти впустую [см. тж. II Б 14]

    16. to go to smth., smb.
    1) обращаться к чему-л., на кого-л.

    his eyes went to her - он взглянул на неё, он обратил свой взгляд на неё

    2) прибегать к помощи; обращаться (к кому-л.)

    to go to law /to court/ - обращаться в суд

    to go to law with smb. - возбуждать дело в суде против кого-л.

    17. to go to smth. становиться кем-л.

    to go to the stage - стать актёром, пойти в актёры

    to go to the streets - стать проституткой, пойти на панель

    to go to school - ходить в школу; стать учеником, учиться в школе

    to go to college [to the university] - стать [быть] студентом, учиться в колледже [в университете]

    18. to go to smb.
    1) быть проданным кому-л.

    the house went to the one who made the highest offer - дом продали тому, кто предложил самую высокую цену

    going to the gentleman in the third row! going, going, gone! - продано джентльмену в третьем ряду! продано - раз!, продано - два!, продано - три!

    2) доставаться кому-л.
    19. to go through smth.
    1) тщательно, пункт за пунктом разбирать что-л.
    2) проделать, сделать что-л.

    let's go through the rehearsal without any interruptions - давайте проведём репетицию без всяких помех

    3) пройти, быть принятым где-л. (о проекте, предложении)

    the plan must go through several stages - план должен пройти несколько инстанций

    4) испытывать что-л., подвергаться чему-л.

    the country has gone through too many wars - эта страна перенесла слишком много войн

    5) выдержать столько-то изданий ( о книге)
    6) обыскивать, обшаривать что-л.

    he went through his pockets looking for the key - он обыскал все карманы в поисках ключа

    7) растратить, израсходовать (состояние, деньги и т. п.)

    he quickly went through his fortune [his savings] - он быстро растратил /промотал/ своё состояние [свои сбережения]

    20. to go into smth.
    1) тщательно разбирать что-л., вникать во что-л.; расследовать, рассматривать что-л.

    to go into details /particulars/ - вдаваться в подробности

    2) избирать (профессию и т. п.)

    to go into business - избрать карьеру делового человека; стать дельцом

    to go into Parliament [into the Cabinet] - стать членом парламента [кабинета министров]

    3) вступить в организацию, стать членом общества
    4) надевать

    she goes into woollen stockings in September - с сентября она начинает носить шерстяные чулки

    21. to go before /to/ smb., smth.
    1) предстать перед кем-л., чем-л.

    you will go before the board of directors - вы предстанете перед советом директоров

    2) передавать на рассмотрение кому-л., чему-л.

    your suggestion will go before the committee - о вашем предложении доложат комиссии

    can this question go direct to the minister? - нельзя ли этот вопрос поставить непосредственно перед министром?

    22. to go with smb.
    1) сопровождать кого-л., идти вместе с кем-л.

    shall I go with you? - хотите я пойду с вами?

    2) быть заодно, соглашаться с кем-л.
    23. to go with smth.
    1) подходить к чему-л., гармонировать с чем-л.; соответствовать чему-л.

    the blue scarf goes well with your blouse - этот голубой шарф красиво сочетается с вашей блузкой

    2) относиться к чему-л., быть связанным с чем-л.

    five acres of land go with the house - продаётся дом с прилегающим к нему участком в пять акров

    3) быть связанным с чем-л.; соответствовать чему-л.

    the salary that goes with an office - жалованье, соответствующее занимаемой должности

    24. to go without smth.
    1) обходиться без чего-л.
    2) не иметь чего-л.

    to go without money - не иметь денег, быть без денег

    25. to go by /under/ á name быть известным под каким-л. именем

    to go by /under/ the name of... - быть известным под именем...

    he went under a pseudonym - он был известен под псевдонимом, он носил псевдоним

    26. to go under smb.'s name приписываться кому-л. ( об авторстве)

    that play generally goes under the name of Shakespeare - обычно эту пьесу приписывают Шекспиру

    27. 1) to go to make up smth. составлять что-л., входить в состав чего-л.

    items which go to make up the total - пункты, из которых складывается целое

    2) to go to the making of smth., smb. быть необходимым для чего-л., кого-л.

    what qualities go to the making of a pilot? - какие качества необходимы пилоту?

    dressings that go to making a good salad - приправа, необходимая, чтобы приготовить вкусный салат

    28. to go into á state приходить в какое-л. состояние
    29. to go into á condition входить в какое-л. положение

    to go into anchor - мор. становиться на якорь

    to go into the assault - воен. идти в атаку

    to go into bivouac - воен. располагаться биваком

    30. ... as smth., smb. goes... как что-л. заведено...;... как другие

    as things go - разг. при сложившихся обстоятельствах, как это водится, в нынешних условиях

    that's not bad as things go - при существующем положении вещей это не так уж плохо

    31. to go to show that... свидетельствовать

    it all goes to show that he cannot be trusted - всё это свидетельствует о том, что ему нельзя доверять

    your behaviour goes to prove that... - ваше поведение служит доказательством того, что...

    32. smth. is going иметься, продаваться, подаваться и т. п.

    come along, there are ices going - идём скорее, подают мороженое

    I'll have what's going - дайте мне, что у вас есть

    are there any jobs going? - здесь есть работа?

    are there any houses going? - здесь продают(ся) дома?

    III А
    1. в сочетании с последующим герундием выражает действие, соответствующее значению герундия:

    to go (out) hunting /shooting/ - отправляться /ходить/ на охоту

    to go out fishing [duck-shooting] - отправляться на рыбную ловлю [охотиться на уток]

    to go shopping - отправляться за покупками; ходить по магазинам

    he goes frightening people with his stories - он постоянно пугает людей своими рассказами

    don't go doing that! - разг. не смей делать этого!

    don't go saying that! - разг. не болтай ерунды!

    1) находиться в каком-л. положении или состоянии

    to go free - быть свободным /незанятым/

    to go hungry /empty/ - (вечно) быть /ходить/ голодным

    to go armed - быть /ходить/ вооружённым, носить оружие

    the differences between them go deep - их разногласия имеют глубокие корни

    to go in fear (of smth.) - жить в вечном страхе (перед чем-л.)

    to go strong - держаться, сохранять силу, не сдаваться

    to be six months gone (with child) - быть на седьмом месяце (беременности)

    to go native см. native II 2

    2) делаться, становиться

    to go bad - испортиться; сгнить, прогнить, протухнуть

    to go dry - высыхать, становиться сухим [см. тж. ♢ ]

    she /her hair/ is going grey - она седеет

    to go mad /mental/ - сойти с ума

    to go queer in the head - а) помешаться; б) почувствовать головокружение

    to go wrong - а) сбиться с пути, встать на ложный путь; ошибаться; поступать неправильно; б) не выйти, не получиться; в) испортиться, перестать работать; разладиться; г) испортиться, протухнуть ( о пище)

    he went hot and cold - его бросало то в жар, то в холод

    a man gone ninety years of age - человек, которому за 90

    to go Conservative - стать /сделаться/ консерватором

    to go apprentice - сделаться подмастерьем /учеником/

    3) оставаться в каком-л. положении

    to go unpunished - быть /оставаться/ безнаказанным

    to go free /scot-free/ - оставаться свободным

    4) издавать внезапный или отчётливый звук

    to go pop - выстрелить, грохнуть, бахнуть

    to go snap - треснуть; с треском сломаться

    to go flop - а) хлопнуться, плюхнуться; б) потерпеть неудачу, провалиться

    to go fut, to go phut - а) лопнуть; б) сорваться, провалиться, лопнуть; потерпеть крах, неудачу; кончиться ничем; в) испортиться, сломаться

    ♢

    to go to bed /to sleep/ - ложиться спать

    to go to bye-bye - детск. идти бай-бай

    to go the round of - а) совершать обход; б) циркулировать (о слухах и т. п.); переходить или передаваться из уст в уста

    to go foreign - мор. жарг. уйти в заграничное плавание

    to go far - а) хватить надолго; those potatoes won't go far when there are 10 people to feed - картофеля надолго не хватит, раз надо кормить целых десять человек; б) зайти далеко; перейти границы (принятого, допустимого); you've gone too far! - ну, это ты хватил!, в) многого добиться; the boy is clever and will go far - мальчик умный и многого добьётся

    to go a long /good, great/ way - а) далеко пойти; б) далеко зайти, хватить через край; в) хватить надолго, быть достаточным (о деньгах, продуктах)

    far gone - а) в последней стадии ( болезни); б) совершенно безумный; в) сильно пьяный; опьяневший

    as /so/ far as it goes - поскольку дело касается, что касается, что до

    it will go hard /ill/ with him - ему придётся плохо /туго/

    to go smb. better - превзойти /перещеголять, затмить/ кого-л.

    to go dry - амер. а) запретить продажу спиртных напитков; б) отказаться от употребления спиртных напитков; стать трезвенником; [см. тж. III А 2, 2)]

    to go wet - амер. а) разрешить продажу спиртных напитков; б) начать пить

    to go steady - иметь постоянного возлюбленного /-ую возлюбленную/

    to go bail - а) юр. становиться поручителем, поручиться или внести залог (за кого-л.); б) разг. ручаться

    go bail that... - ручаюсь, что...

    to go downhill - а) катиться по наклонной плоскости; б) ухудшаться (о здоровье, материальном положении)

    to go abroad - получить известность [см. тж. I 2], распространиться ( о слухах)

    to go to the country - распустить парламент и назначить новые выборы [см. тж. I 2]

    to go to Canossa - пойти в Каноссу, публично унижаться (перед кем-л.), испрашивая прощение

    to let /to leave/ go - а) выпускать из рук; б) (от)пускать, выпускать; освобождать; let me go! - отпустите меня!; в) пропускать; г) перестать думать, выбросить из головы

    let it go at that! - довольно!, будет!, пусть это так и останется!

    I've let my music go - я запустил музыку, я перестал заниматься музыкой

    to let judgement go by default - юр. заочно решить в пользу истца ( ввиду неявки ответчика)

    go easy /slow/! - осторожнее!, потише! [ср. тж. I 1]

    to go easy on smth. - амер. быть тактичным в отношении чего-л.; проявлять осторожность в отношении чего-л.

    to go solid - амер. полит. жарг. придерживаться одного мнения, действовать единодушно

    to be going some - амер. быстро /успешно/ продвигаться вперёд

    to be going strong - а) быть полным сил; процветать; б) поступать безрассудно /опрометчиво/

    to go one's (own) way /gate/ - идти своим путём, действовать самостоятельно, поступать по-своему

    to go with the current /the tide, the stream, the crowd/ - плыть по течению

    to go with the times /the tides/ - идти в ногу со временем

    to go against the stream /the tide/ - а) идти /плыть/ против течения; б) работать в неблагоприятных условиях; действовать, преодолевая сопротивление /оппозицию/; [см. тж. II Б 6 1)]

    to go on one's marks - спорт. выходить на старт

    as you go!, as she goes! - мор. так держать!

    to go down the drain - быть истраченным впустую [см. тж. drain I ♢ ]

    to go over the top - а) воен. разг. идти в атаку ( из траншей); б) ринуться в атаку, начать решительно действовать, сделать решительный шаг

    to let oneself go - дать волю своим чувствам; разойтись, увлечься

    to go off the deep end - а) волноваться, приходить в возбуждение; б) амер. действовать сгоряча, принять необдуманное решение

    to go out of one's mind /senses/ - а) сойти с ума, рехнуться, лишиться рассудка; б) быть вне себя от волнения

    to go off one's head /груб. chump, nut/, to go round the bend - сойти с ума, помешаться, рехнуться, спятить; обезуметь, вести себя как безумный

    to go off at a tangent - сорваться, странно себя повести или высказаться

    to go off the hooks - а) умереть, протянуть ноги; б) сойти с ума, рехнуться, спятить; в) сбиться с пути, свихнуться

    to go out of the world - умереть, покинуть бренный мир

    to go the way of all the earth /flesh/, to go beyond the veil, to go home, to go to one's last /long/ home, to go to glory, to go to heaven, to go to one's long rest, to go to one's own place, to go over to the majority умереть, скончаться, разделить участь всех смертных, отправиться на тот свет, отправиться к праотцам, уйти на покой, покинуть этот бренный мир

    to go west - а) закатываться ( о солнце); б) умереть, скончаться; в) исчезнуть, пропасть

    to go (all) to pieces /rack and ruin, smash/ - а) развалиться; разбиться вдребезги, разлететься на части /на куски/; б) подорвать своё здоровье, выйти из строя; в) обанкротиться; вылететь в трубу; трещать по всем швам; г) погибнуть, пропасть

    to go to blazes /to hell, to pot, to the devil, to the dogs/, to go to pigs and whistles - разориться; погибнуть; вылететь в трубу; провалиться, пойти ко всем чертям, пойти прахом

    go to blazes /to Bath, to hell, to Jericho, to pot, to the devil, to thunder, to Hanover, to Halifax, to Putney, to Tunbridge, to grass/! - пошёл к чёрту!, убирайся к чёрту!

    go fly a kite!, go jump in the lake!, go lay an egg!, go lay a brick!, go sit on a tack - амер. груб. проваливай!, не мешай!

    to go the pace - а) мчаться, нестись во весь опор; б) прожигать жизнь, вести бурный образ жизни

    to go all out - а) напрягать все силы, стараться изо всех сил; ≅ из кожи вон лезть; б) бежать изо всех сил

    to go out of hand - а) выходить из повиновения; б) действовать тотчас же /немедленно, без подготовки/; в) амер. действовать опрометчиво /необдуманно, неосторожно/; проявлять несдержанность; г) завершать, оканчивать

    to go all /to great/ lengths - идти на всё

    to go the whole hog - а) делать (что-л.) основательно, доводить ( дело) до конца; б) ни перед чем не останавливаться, идти на всё

    to go (home) to smb.'s heart - опечалить /огорчить/ кого-л.

    to go home - а) доходить до сердца; найти отклик в душе; б) доходить до сознания

    to go on a bat /the batter, the bend, the bust, the spree, the razzle-dazzle/ - закутить, запить, загулять

    go while the going's good - убирайтесь подобру-поздорову /пока не поздно/

    to go it - а) действовать энергично; прилагать все усилия; б) говорить очень откровенно; в) обрушивать артиллерийский огонь

    go it! - ≅ давай, давай!, валяй! ( выражает поощрение к действию)

    to go it alone - действовать в одиночку, брать на себя всю ответственность

    if no one can help, I'll go it alone - если никто не может помочь, я буду действовать сам /я сделаю всё сам/

    to go it blind - действовать вслепую; поступать опрометчиво

    go along with you! - а) проваливайте!; убирайтесь; б) хватит!, не несите вздора!

    there you go! - ну (вот) поехал(а)!, опять (выражает досаду, недовольство)

    there he [she] goes! - ≅ полюбуйтесь на него [на неё]!, хорош [хороша]!, как разошёлся [разошлась]!, нечего сказать!, ну и картина! ( восклицание удивления или неодобрения)

    don't you go all polite on me! - откуда такая вежливость?

    there it goes! - ≅ смотри(те)!, слушай(те)! (восклицание, чтобы привлечь внимание слушателя)

    here goes! - а) ну, начали!; б) была не была!

    go by! - карт. пас!

    that /it/ goes for all of us - тут мы все заодно; мы все так считаем /думаем/

    it /that/ goes without saying - само собой разумеется, совершенно очевидно

    how goes it? - как дела?; как поживаете?; что слышно новенького?

    how goes the world with you? - как идут у вас дела?

    to go a-begging /begging/ - а) не иметь спроса /рынка/; б) быть вакантным ( о должности)

    to go a-wool-gathering - быть рассеянным, витать в облаках

    to go against the grain /the hair/ - быть не по вкусу /не по душе, не по нутру/; раздражать

    to go to seed - а) пойти в семена; перестать развиваться; б) прийти в упадок; в) морально опуститься

    go like this with your left foot! - сделай левой ногой так!

    to go like blazes - мчаться, нестись во весь опор

    to go like sixty /split/ - амер. мчаться, нестись во весь опор

    НБАРС > go

  • 16 optimization

    1. подбор оптимальных условий
    2. оптимизация
    3. определение оптимальных характеристик
    4. выбор оптимальных параметров

     

    выбор оптимальных параметров
    —
    [А.С.Гольдберг. Англо-русский энергетический словарь. 2006 г.]

    Тематики

    EN

     

    оптимизация
    Процесс отыскания варианта, соответствующего критерию оптимальности
    [Терминологический словарь по строительству на 12 языках (ВНИИИС Госстроя СССР)]
    оптимизация
    1. Процесс нахождения экстремума функции, т.е. выбор наилучшего варианта из множества возможных, процесс выработки оптимальных решений; 2. Процесс приведения системы в наилучшее (оптимальное) состояние. Иначе говоря, первое определение трактует термин «О.» как факт выработки и принятия оптимального решения (в широком смысле этих слов); мы выясняем, какое состояние изучаемой системы будет наилучшим с точки зрения предъявляемых к ней требований (критерия оптимальности) и рассматриваем такое состояние как цель. В этом смысле применяется также термин «субоптимизация» в случаях, когда отыскивается оптимум по какому-либо одному критерию из нескольких в векторной задаче оптимизации (см. Оптимальность по Парето, Векторная оптимизация). Второе определение имеет в виду процесс выполнения этого решения: т.е. перевод системы от существующего к искомому оптимальному состоянию. В зависимости от вида используемых критериев оптимальности (целевых функций или функционалов) и ограничений модели (множества допустимых решений) различают скалярную О., векторную О., мно¬гокритериальную О., стохастическую О (см. Стохастическое программирование), гладкую и негладкую (см. Гладкая функция), дискретную и непрерывную (см. Дискретность, Непрерывность), выпуклую и вогнутую (см. Выпуклость, вогнутость) и др. Численные методы О., т.е. методы построения алгоритмов нахождения оп¬тимальных значений целевых функций и соответствующих точек области допустимых значений — развитой отдел современной вычислительной математики. См. Оптимальная задача.
    [ http://slovar-lopatnikov.ru/]

    Параллельные тексты EN-RU из ABB Review. Перевод компании Интент

    The quest for the optimum

    Вопрос оптимизации

    Throughout the history of industry, there has been one factor that has spurred on progress more than any other. That factor is productivity. From the invention of the first pump to advanced computer-based optimization methods, the key to the success of new ideas was that they permitted more to be achieved with less. This meant that consumers could, over time and measured in real terms, afford to buy more with less money. Luxuries restricted to a tiny minority not much more than a generation ago are now available to almost everybody in developed countries, with many developing countries rapidly catching up.

    На протяжении всей истории промышленности существует один фактор, подстегивающий ее развитие сильнее всего. Он называется «производительность». Начиная с изобретения первого насоса и заканчивая передовыми методами компьютерной оптимизации, успех новых идей зависел от того, позволяют ли они добиться большего результата меньшими усилиями. На языке потребителей это значит, что они всегда хотят купить больше, а заплатить меньше. Меньше чем поколение назад, многие предметы считались роскошью и были доступны лишь немногим. Сейчас в развитых странах, число которых быстро увеличивается, подобное может позволить себе почти каждый.

    With industry and consumers expecting the trend towards higher productivity to continue, engineering companies are faced with the challenge of identifying and realizing further optimization potential. The solution often lies in taking a step back and looking at the bigger picture. Rather than optimizing every step individually, many modern optimization techniques look at a process as a whole, and sometimes even beyond it. They can, for example, take into account factors such as the volatility of fuel quality and price, the performance of maintenance and service practices or even improved data tracking and handling. All this would not be possible without the advanced processing capability of modern computer and control systems, able to handle numerous variables over large domains, and so solve optimization problems that would otherwise remain intractable.

    На фоне общей заинтересованности в дальнейшем росте производительности, машиностроительные и проектировочные компании сталкиваются с необходимостью определения и реализации возможностей по оптимизации своей деятельности. Для того чтобы найти решение, часто нужно сделать шаг назад, поскольку большое видится на расстоянии. И поэтому вместо того, чтобы оптимизировать каждый этап производства по отдельности, многие современные решения охватывают процесс целиком, а иногда и выходят за его пределы. Например, они могут учитывать такие факторы, как изменение качества и цены топлива, результативность ремонта и обслуживания, и даже возможности по сбору и обработке данных. Все это невозможно без использования мощных современных компьютеров и систем управления, способных оперировать множеством переменных, связанных с крупномасштабными объектами, и решать проблемы оптимизации, которые другим способом решить нереально.

    Whether through a stunning example of how to improve the rolling of metal, or in a more general overview of progress in optimization algorithms, this edition of ABB Review brings you closer to the challenges and successes of real world computer-based optimization tasks. But it is not in optimization and solving alone that information technology is making a difference: Who would have thought 10 years ago, that a technician would today be able to diagnose equipment and advise on maintenance without even visiting the factory? ABB’s Remote Service makes this possible. In another article, ABB Review shows how the company is reducing paperwork while at the same time leveraging quality control through the computer-based tracking of production. And if you believed that so-called “Internet communities” were just about fun, you will be surprised to read how a spin-off of this idea is already leveraging production efficiency in real terms. Devices are able to form “social networks” and so facilitate maintenance.

    Рассказывая об ошеломляющем примере того, как был усовершенствован процесс прокатки металла, или давая общий обзор развития алгоритмов оптимизации, этот выпуск АББ Ревю знакомит вас с практическими задачами и достигнутыми успехами оптимизации на основе компьютерных технологий. Но информационные технологии способны не только оптимизировать процесс производства. Кто бы мог представить 10 лет назад, что сервисный специалист может диагностировать производственное оборудование и давать рекомендации по его обслуживанию, не выходя из офиса? Это стало возможно с пакетом Remote Service от АББ. В другой статье этого номера АББ Ревю рассказывается о том, как компания смогла уменьшить бумажный документооборот и одновременно повысить качество управления с помощью компьютерного контроля производства. Если вы считаете, что так называемые «интернет-сообщества» служат только для развлечения,
    то очень удивитесь, узнав, что на основе этой идеи можно реально повысить производительность. Формирование «социальной сети» из автоматов значительно облегчает их обслуживание.

    This edition of ABB Review also features several stories of service and consulting successes, demonstrating how ABB’s expertise has helped customers achieve higher levels of productivity. In a more fundamental look at the question of what reliability is really about, a thought-provoking analysis sets out to find the definition of that term that makes the greatest difference to overall production.

    В этом номере АББ Ревю есть несколько статей, рассказывающих об успешных решениях по организации дистанционного сервиса и консультирования. Из них видно, как опыт АББ помогает нашим заказчикам повысить производительность своих предприятий. Углубленные размышления о самой природе термина «надежность» приводят к парадоксальным выводам, способным в корне изменить представления об оптимизации производства.

    Robots have often been called “the extended arm of man.” They are continuously advancing productivity by meeting ever-tightening demands on precision and efficiency. This edition of ABB Review dedicates two articles to robots.

    Робот – это могучее «продолжение» человеческой руки. Применение роботов способствует постоянному повышению производительности, поскольку они отвечают самым строгим требованиям точности и эффективности. Две статьи в этом номере АББ Ревю посвящены роботам.

    Further technological breakthroughs discussed in this issue look at how ABB is keeping water clean or enabling gas to be shipped more efficiently.

    Говоря о других технологических достижениях, обсуждаемых на страницах журнала, следует упомянуть о том, как компания АББ обеспечивает чистоту воды, а также более эффективную перевозку сжиженного газа морским транспортом.

    The publication of this edition of ABB Review is timed to coincide with ABB Automation and Power World 2009, one of the company’s greatest customer events. Readers visiting this event will doubtlessly recognize many technologies and products that have been covered in this and recent editions of the journal. Among the new products ABB is launching at the event is a caliper permitting the flatness of paper to be measured optically. We are proud to carry a report on this product on the very day of its launch.

    Публикация этого номера АББ Ревю совпала по времени с крупнейшей конференцией для наших заказчиков «ABB Automation and Power World 2009». Читатели, посетившие ее, смогли воочию увидеть многие технологии и изделия, описанные в этом и предыдущих выпусках журнала. Среди новинок, представленных АББ на этой конференции, был датчик, позволяющий измерять толщину бумаги оптическим способом. Мы рады сообщить, что сегодня он готов к выпуску.

    Тематики

    EN

    DE

    FR

    Англо-русский словарь нормативно-технической терминологии > optimization

  • 17 Internet payment system

    E-com
    any mechanism for fund transfer from customer to merchant or business to business via the Internet. There are many payment options available, including credit card payment, credit transfer, electronic checks, direct debit, smart cards, prepaid schemes, loyalty scheme points-based approaches, person-to-person payments, and mobile phone schemes.
         Getting the online payment system right is critical to the success of e-commerce. Currently, the most common form of online consumer payment is by credit card (90% in the United States; 70% in Europe). The most commonbusiness-to-businesspayments,however, are still offline—probably because such transactions often involve large sums of money.
         Good online payment systems share key characteristics: ease of use; robustness and reliability; proper authentication (to combat fraud); efficient integration with the vendor’s own internal systems; security and assurance procedures which check that the seller gets the money and the buyer gets the goods.

    The ultimate business dictionary > Internet payment system

  • 18 Symbol

       When a symbol stands for a class of objects or events with common properties, we say that it refers to a concept. (Hilgard, 1957, p. 315)
       The notion of a discrete atomic symbol is the basis of all formal understanding. Indeed, it is the basis of all systems of thought, expression or calculation for which a notation is available.... No one has succeeded in defining any other type of atom from which formal understanding can be derived. Small wonder, then, that many of us are reluctant to dispense with this foundation in cognitive psychology under frequent exhortations to accept symbols with such varied intrinsic properties as continuous or analogue properties. (Pylyshyn, 1984, p. 51)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Symbol

  • 19 Women

       A paradox exists regarding the equality of women in Portuguese society. Although the Constitution of 1976 gave women full equality in rights, and the right to vote had already been granted under Prime Minister Marcello Caetano during the Estado Novo, a gap existed between legal reality and social practice. In many respects, the last 30 years have brought important social and political changes with benefits for women. In addition to the franchise, women won—at least on paper—equal property-owning rights and the right of freedom of movement (getting passports, etc.). The workforce and the electorate afforded a much larger role for women, as more than 45 percent of the labor force and more than 50 percent of the electorate are women. More women than ever attend universities, and they play a larger role in university student bodies. Also, more than ever before, they are represented in the learned professions. In politics, a woman served briefly as prime minister in 1979-80: Maria de Lourdes Pintasilgo. Women are members of government cabinets ("councils"); women are in the judicial system, and, in the late 1980s, some 25 women were elected members of parliament (Assembly of the Republic). Moreover, women are now members of the police and armed forces, and some women, like Olympic marathoner Rosa Mota, are top athletes.
       Portuguese feminists participated in a long struggle for equality in all phases of life. An early such feminist was Ana de Castro Osório (1872-1935), a writer and teacher. Another leader in Portugal's women's movement, in a later generation, was Maria Lamas (18931983). Despite the fact that Portugal lacked a strong women's movement, women did resist the Estado Novo, and some progress occurred during the final phase of the authoritarian regime. In the general elections of 1969, women were granted equal voting rights for the first time. Nevertheless, Portuguese women still lacked many of the rights of their counterparts in other Western European countries. A later generation of feminists, symbolized by the three women writers known as "The Three Marias," made symbolic protests through their sensational writings. In 1972, a book by the three women writers, all born in the late 1930s or early 1940s (Maria Isabel Barreno, Maria Teresa Horta, and Maria Velho da Costa), was seized by the government and the authors were arrested and put on trial for their writings and outspoken views, which included the assertion of women's rights to sexual and reproductive freedom.
       The Revolution of 25 April 1974 overthrew the Estado Novo and established in law, if not fully in actual practice in society, a full range of rights for women. The paradox in Portuguese society was that, despite the fact that sexual equality was legislated "from the top down," a gap remained between what the law said and what happened in society. Despite the relatively new laws and although women now played a larger role in the workforce, women continued to suffer discrimination and exclusion. Strong pressures remained for conformity to old ways, a hardy machismo culture continued, and there was elitism as well as inequality among classes. As the 21st century commenced, women played a more prominent role in society, government, and culture, but the practice of full equality was lacking, and the institutions of the polity, including the judicial and law enforcement systems, did not always carry out the law.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Women

  • 20 Herreshoff, Nathaniel Greene

    SUBJECT AREA: Ports and shipping
    [br]
    b. 18 March 1848 Bristol, Rhode Island, USA
    d. 2 June 1938 Bristol, Rhode Island, USA
    [br]
    American naval architect and designer of six successful America's Cup defenders.
    [br]
    Herreshoff, or, as he was known, Captain Nat, was seventh in a family of nine, four of whom became blind in childhood. Association with such problems may have sharpened his appreciation of shape and form; indeed, he made a lengthy European small-boat trip with a blind brother. While working on yacht designs, he used three-dimensional models in conjunction with the sheer draught on the drawing-board. With many of the family being boatbuilders, he started designing at the age of 16 and then decided to make this his career. As naval architecture was not then a graduating subject, he studied mechanical engineering at Massachusetts Institute of Technology. While still studying, c.1867, he broke new ground by preparing direct reading time handicapping tables for yachts up to 110 ft (33.5 m) long. After working with the Corliss Company, he set up the Herreshoff Manufacturing Company, in partnership with J.B.Herreshoff, as shipbuilders and engineers. Over the years their output included steam machinery, fishing vessels, pleasure craft and racing yachts. They built the first torpedo boat for the US Navy and another for the Royal Navy, the only such acquisition in the late nineteenth century. Herreshoff designed six of the world's greatest yachts, of the America's Cup, between 1890 and 1920. His accomplishments included new types of lightweight wood fasteners, new systems of framing, hollow spars and better methods of cutting sails. He continued to work full-time until 1935 and his work was internationally acclaimed. He maintained cordial relations with his British rivals Fife, Nicholson and G.L. Watson, and enjoyed friendship with his compatriot Edward Burgess. Few will ever match Herreshoff as an all-round engineer and designer.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Herreshoff was one of the very few, other than heads of state, to become an Honorary Member of the New York Yacht Club.
    Further Reading
    L.F.Herreshoff, 1953, Capt. Nat Herreshoff. The Wizard of Bristol, White Plains, NY: Sheridan House; 2nd edn 1981.
    FMW

    Biographical history of technology > Herreshoff, Nathaniel Greene

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